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UNIVERSITY  OF  CMIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/fundamentalsofagOOhalliala 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF 
AGRICULTURE 


EDITED    BY 


JAMES   EDWARD    HALLIGAN 

Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Experiment  Station 


D    C.   HEATH    AND    COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 

19  H 


Copyright,  191  i,  by 
D.  C.  HEATH  AND  COMPANY 


PREFACE. 

The  world  lives  on  the  products  of  agriculture,  and 
consequently  some  knowledge  of  this  subject  should  be 
of  importance  to  every  one  independent  of  his  vocation 
in  life.  It  is  the  object  of  this  book,  therefore,  to  pre- 
sent the  fundamentals  of  this  important  subject,  so  as 
to  answer  questions  and  conditions  which  prevail  in 
everybody's  life. 

Every  subject  in  this  book  is  written  by  an  expert  in 
his  line.  This  idea  was  carried  out  in  order  to  furnish 
the  student  with  the  best  information  that  could  be  ob- 
tained. The  editor  thought  it  would  be  better  to  have 
authorities  treat  of  the  various  topics  rather  than  write 
the  book  alone,  as  there  are  very  few  men  who  are 
competent  enough  to  warrant  their  writing  the  best 
text-book  on  agriculture. 

A  list  of  bulletins  and  reference  books  is  appended 
at  the  end  of  each  chapter.  The  teacher  should  send 
for  the  bulletins  (which  can  be  had  free  of  charge) 
some  time  before  the  particular  subject  is  assigned,  in 
order  that  fuller  information  may  be  offered  to  the 
students  than  is  included  in  the  text. 

The  teacher  should  endeavor  to  present  the  subjects 
in  season,  and  not  necessarily  in  the  order  they  are 
given,  so  that  field  trips  may  be  taken  to  impress  the 
topic  or  topics  on  the  student's  mind  and  to  excite  in- 
terest. In  propounding  questions  to  the  class  original- 
ity should  predominate.  At  the  end  of  most  sections 
a  few  questions  are  asked  to  give  the  teacher  an  idea 
of  what  is  required.  Field  experiments  should  be  con- 
ducted, and  the  text  should  be  followed  only  to  furnish 
the  student  with  the  principles  or  working  knowledge. 

In  a  work  of  this  kind  it  is  impossible  to  treat  of 

iii 


»r/'»rr  m  /m  ^ 


VI  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER     III.— MANURES     AND     FERTILIZING 
MATERIALS. 

By  J.  E.  Halligan,  Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Ex- 
periment Station. 

PAGE 

Section   XI. — Farm   Manures 58 

Section   XII. — Commercial   Fertilizers 62 

Section    XIII. — Valuation    of    Fertilizers        .        .        .        .67 

Section  XIV. — Mixing  Fertilizers 69 

Section  XV. — Application  of  Fertilizers 72 

CHAPTER   IV.— FARM    CROPS. 

Section  XVI. — Diversification  and  Rotation  of  Crops     .        .    75 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier,  Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia 

Polytechnic  Institute. 

Section  XVII. — Corn 83 

By  Prof.  A.  D.  Shamel,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.   S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Section  XVIII. — Methods  of  Culture  of  Corn        .        .        .93 

Section  XIX. — Cotton 104 

By  Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson,  Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture, 
Louisiana  State  University,  and  Director  Louisiana  Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Section  XX. — The  Culture  of  Cotton iii 

Section  XXL— Rice 118 

By  Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson,  Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture, 
Louisiana  State  University,  and  Director  Louisiana  Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Section  XXII. — Wheat,  Oats,  Rye,  and  Barley        .        .        .  125 

By   Prof.   O.   D.   Center,   Department  of  Crop   Production, 

University  of  Illinois. 

Section  XXIII. — Sugar  Cane 150 

By  Prof.  H.  P.  Agee,  Asst.  Director  in  Charge,  Louisiana 
Sugar  Experiment  Station. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  VU 

PAGE 

Section  XXIV. — Tobacco        .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .158 

By  Dr.    E.   H.   Jenkins,    Director   Connecticut  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

Section  XXV    (o). — Root   Crops,    Mangels,   Irish    Potatoes, 

Sugar    Beets,    Etc 164 

By  J.  E.  Halligan,  Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Ex- 
periment Station. 
(&). — Sweet  Potatoes,  Peanuts,  and  Water- 
melons         180 

By  Prof.  S.  E.  McClendon,  Asst.  Director  Louisiana  State 
Experiment  Station. 

Section  XXVI. — Forage  Crops 185 

By  Prof.  C.  V.  Piper,  Bureau' of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

Section  XXVII. — Some  Important  Forage  Plants    .        .        .  l|o 

Section  XXVIII. — Weeds 197 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier,  Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia 
Polytechnic  Institute. 

CHAPTER   v.— TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 
Section  XXIX. — The   Planting   and   Care   of   the  Orchard  204 
By  Prof.  C.  P.  Halligan,  Department  of  Horticulture,  Michi- 
gan   State    Agricultural    College. 

Section  XXX. — Pomology 209 

By  Prof.  C.  P.  Halligan,  Department  of  Horticulture,  Michi- 
gan   State    Agricultural    College. 

Section  XXXI. — Forestry 219 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier,  Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia 
Polytechnic  Institute. 

Section  XXXII. — The    Injury    of   Gas    and    Electricity    to 

Trees 222 

By  Dr.  G.  E.  Stone,  Department  of  Botany,  Massachusetts 
Agricultural   College. 

Section  XXXIII. — Ornamental   Trees   and   Shrubs        .        .  226 

By  Prof.  Charles  A.  KeflFer,  Department  of  Horticulture  and 

Forestry,  University  of  Tennessee. 


VI  TABLE  OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    III.— MANURES     AND     FERTILIZING 
MATERIALS. 

By  J.  E.  Halligan,  Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Ex- 
periment Station. 

PAGE 

Section   XI. — Farm    Manures 58 

Section  XII. — Commercial  Fertilizers        .        .        .        .        .    62 
Section    XIII. — Valuation    of    Fertilizers        .        .        .        .67 

Section  XIV. — Mixing  Fertilizers 69 

Section  XV. — Application  of  Fertilizers 72 

CHAPTER   IV.— FARM    CROPS. 

Section  XVI. — Diversification  and  Rotation  of  Crops     .        .     75 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier,  Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia 

Polytechnic  Institute. 

Section  XVI  I.— Corn 83 

By  Prof.  A.  D.  Shamel,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.   S. 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Section  XVIII. — Methods  of  Culture  of  Corn        .       .        .93 

Section  XIX. — Cotton 104 

By  Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson,  Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture, 
Louisiana  State  University,  and  Director  Louisiana  Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Section  XX. — The  Culture  of  Cotton 11 1 

Section  XXL— Rice 118 

By  Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson,  Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture, 
Louisiana  State  University,  and  Director  Louisiana  Ex- 
periment Stations. 

Section  XXII. — Wheat,  Oats,  Rye,  and  Barley        .        .        .  125 

By   Prof.  O.   D.   Center,   Department  of  Crop   Production, 

University  of  Illinois. 

Section  XXIII. — Sugar  Cane        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  150 

By  Prof.  H.  P.  Agee,  Asst.  Director  in  Charge,  Louisiana 
Sugar  Experiment  Station. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  vu 

PAGE 

Section  XXIV. — Tobacco        .        .        .        .        .        .       .        .158 

By  Dr.    E.    H.   Jenkins,    Director   Connecticut   Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

Section  XXV    (a). — Root   Crops,    Mangels,   Irish    Potatoes, 

Sugar    Beets,    Etc 164 

By  J.  E.  Halligan,  Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Ex- 
periment Station. 
(b). — Sweet   Potatoes,   Peanuts,  and  Water- 
melons         180 

By  Prof.  S.  E.  McClendon,  Asst.  Director  Louisiana  State 
Experiment  Station. 

Section  XXVI. — Forage  Crops 185 

By  Prof.  C.  V.  Piper,  Bureau -of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

Section  XXVII. — Some  Important  Forage  Plants    .        .        .  190 

Section  XXVIII. — Weeds 197 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier,  Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia 
Polytechnic  Institute. 

CHAPTER   v.— TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 
Section  XXIX. — The   Planting   and   Care   of   the  Orchard  204 
By  Prof.  C.  P.  Halligan,  Department  of  Horticulture,  Michi- 
gan   State    Agricultural    College. 

Section  XXX. — Pomology .  209 

By  Prof.  C.  P.  Halligan,  Department  of  Horticulture,  Michi- 
gan   State    Agricultural    College. 

Section  XXXI. — Forestry 219 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier,  Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia 
Polytechnic  Institute. 

Section  XXXII. — The   Injury   of  Gas   and    Electricity   to 

Trees 222 

By  Dr.  G.  E.  Stone,  Department  of  Botany,  Massachusetts 
Agricultural   College. 

Section  XXXIII. — Ornamental   Trees   and   Shrubs        .        .  226 

By  Prof.  Charles  A.  Keffer,  Department  of  Horticulture  and 

Forestry,  University  of  Tennessee. 


vm  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Section  XXXIV. — The  Garden 232 

By  Prof.  Charles  A.  Keffer,  Department  of  Horticulture  and 
Forestry,   University  of  Tennessee. 


CHAPTER  VI.— PLANT   DISEASES. 

By  Prof.   H.   R.   Fulton,   Department  of  Botany,   Pennsyl- 
vania State   College. 

Section  XXXV. — Causes  of  Plant  Diseases      ....  240 
Section  XXXVI. — Control  of  Fungus  Diseases        .       .        .  243 

Section  XXXVII. — Fruit  Crop  Diseases 248 

Section  XXXVIII. — Garden   Crop  Diseases        ....  252 
Miction  XXXIX. — Field  Crop  Diseases 255 

CHAPTER  VII.— INSECTS  AND   BIRDS. 

Section  XL. — What  an  Insect  Is 261 

By  Prof.   Glenn  W.  Herrick,   Department   of  Entomology, 
Cornell  University. 

Section  XLI. — Insect   Friends   of   the   Farmer        .        .        .  267 
Section  XLII. — Insect  Enemies  op  the  Farmer        .        .        .  271 

Section  XLIII. — The  Boll  Weevil 274 

By  Prof.  Wilmon  Newell,  Texas  State  Entomologist. 
Section  XLIV. — The  Cattle  Tick 283 

By  Prof.  Wilmon  Newell,  Texas  State  Entomologist. 
Section  XLV. — The  Cotton  Worm,  or  Cotton  Caterpillar      .  285 

By  Prof.  Wilmon  Newell,  Texas  State  Entomologist. 
Section  XLVI. — Orchard   and   Garden    Insects        .        .        .  288 

By  Prof.  A.  L.  Quaintance,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
Bureau  of  Entomology. 

Section  XLVII. — House  Flies  and  Mosquitoes        .        .        .  297 

By  Dr.  A.  W.  Morrill,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Entomology. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS.  ix 

PAGE 

Section  XLVIII. — Bee  Keeping 301 

By    Prof.     Wilmon    Newell,    Texas     State    Entomologist. 

Section  XLIX. — Wild  Birds 304 

By  Prof.  E.  H.  Forbush,  State  Ornithologist  of  Massachu- 
setts. 

Section  L. — Birds  of  Orchard  and  Woodland  ....  308 
Section  LI. — Birds  of  the  Field  and  Garden  .  .  .  .311 
Section  LIL — Other  Birds 314 

CHAPTER   VIIL— LIVE-STOCK    AND    DAIRYING. 

Section  LIII. — Principles  of  Animal  Breeding  and  Grading  318 

By  Prof.  E.   S.   Good,  Department  of  Animal   Husbandry, 

Kentucky  State  University. 

Section  "LIV. — Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses        ....  320 

By  Prof.  E.   S.   Good,  Department  of  Animal   Husbandry, 

Kentucky   State  University. 

Section  LV. — Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle        ....  333 

By  Prof.  E.  S.  Good,  Department  of  Animal  Husbandry, 

Kentucky  State  University. 

Section  LVI. — Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep        ....  345 

By  Prof.  Joseph  E.   Wing,   Staff  Correspondent  Breeder's 

Gazette. 

Section  LVI  I. — Types  and  Breeds  of  Swine        ....  352 

By  Prof.  C.  S.  Plumb,  Department  of  Animal  Husbandry, 

Ohio  State  University. 

Section  LVIII   (a). — Poultry 359 

By  Prof.  D.  J.  Lambert,  Department  of  Poultry  Husbandry, 
Rhode  Island  State  College. 

(b). — Poultry  Houses  and  Care  of  Poultry    .  365 
By  J.  E.  Halligan,  Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Ex- 
periment  Station. 

Section  LIX. — Dairying 374 

By  Dr.  F.  W.  Woll,  Department  of  Agricultural  Chemistry, 
University  of  Wisconsin. 


X  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IX.— FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. 

By  J.  E.  Halligan,  Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Ex- 
periment  Station. 

PAGE 

Section  LX. — The  Composition  of  Plants         ....  387 

Section  LXI. — The  Composition  of  Farm  Animals  and  the 

Nutritive  Elements 389 

Section  LXII. — Physiology  of  Digestion  and  Food  Economics  393 

By  Dr.  W.  H.  Dalrymple,  Department  of  Veterinary  Science, 

Louisiana  State  University. 

Section  LXIII. — Natural  and  Commercial  Stock  Feeds        .  396 
By  J.  E.  Halligan,  Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Ex- 
periment  Station. 

Section  LXIV. — Vegetable    Oil,    Alcoholic    and    Breakfast 

Food    By-Products         ........  401 

Section  LXV. — Other  By-Products 404 


Section    LXVI. — Composition,    Digestibility,    and 
Ratio 


Nutritive 


407 
411 

415 
418 
420 
422 
425 
430 


Section  LXVII. — Feeding  Standards     . 

Section  LXVIII. — Rations 

Section  LXIX. — Terms  of  a  Nutritive  Ratio    . 

Section  LXX. — How  to  Improve  a  Ration  . 

Section  LXXI. — How  to  Reduce  the  Cost  of  a  Ration 

Section  LXXII. — Feeds  for  Farm  Animals 

Section  LXXIII. — A  Few  Remarks  About  Feed  Stuffs 

CHAPTER   X.— MISCELLANEOUS. 

Section  LXXIV. — Farm  Management 434 

By  Prof.  Fred  W.  Card,  Late  of  the  Department  of  Horti- 
culture, Rhode  Island  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts. 

Section  LXXV. — Farm  Machinery 438 

By   Prof.   L.   W.    Chase,   Department   of   Farm   Mechanics, 
University  of  Nebraska. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  xi 

PAGE 

Section  LXXVI. — The  Disposal  of  Sewage  on  the  Farm  452 

By  Prof.  J.  B.  Davidson,  Department  of  Agricultural  Engi- 
neering, Iowa  State  College. 

Section  LXXVII. — Earth   Roads  ...  .        .  455 

By  Prof.  J.  B.  Davidson,  Department  of  Agricultural  Engi- 
neering, Iowa  State  College. 

Section  LXXVII  I. — The  Country  Home 460 

By  J.  E.  Halligan,  Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Ex- 
periment  Station. 

Section  LXXIX. — Truck    Gardening  464 

By     Prof.     G.    L.     Tiebout,     Department     of     Horticulture, 
Louisiana  State  University. 

Appendix 475 

Index 485 


INTRODUCTION. 

Section  I. — ^Means  of  Promoting  Agricultural 
Life  in  America. 

By  Kenyon  L.  Butterfield, 

President  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  and  member  of 
Ex-President  Roosevelt's  Country  Life  Commission. 

Farming  a  Subject  of  Study. — In  our  study  of  the 
means  of  promoting  agriculture  and  country  life  in 
America,  we  are  first  of  all  obliged  to  take  into  account 
the  wonderful  progress  which  agricultural  science  has 
made  during  recent  years.  The  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  and  the  State  Experiment  Sta- 
tions are  constantly  placing  at  our  disposal  new  truths 
which  can  be  successfully  worked  over  into  the  actual 
practice  of  the  farm.  A  new  generation  of  young 
farmers  is  being  trained  for  successful  agricultural 
practice  In  ways  far  different  from  those  which  their 
fathers  used,  and  in  a  much  more  thorough  manner. 
Farming  Is  no  longer  a  matter  of  experience  only — 
It  has  become  a  subject  of  study. 

A  Farmer  Must  Be  an  Educated  Man. — The  very 
fact  that  there  Is  so  much  that  Is  new  to  learn  about 
agriculture,  and  that  farm  practice  must  be  worked 
over  In  the  light  of  this  new  knowledge,  makes  it  Im- 
portant that  everything  possible  be  done  to  give  a  wide 
distribution  to  what  we  already  know  about  the  science 
of  agriculture.  As  in  every  other  industrial  occupa- 
tion in  modern  life,  the  farmer  must  make  a  profit. 
It  Is  not  fair  to  say  that  in  thus  encouraging  farmers 
to  make  more  money,  we  are  devoting  ourselves  sim- 
ply to  greater  material  gain,  although  there  Is  a  pos- 
sible danger  that  this  may  be  the  result.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  education  of  a  good  farmer  under 


XIV  INTRODUCTION. 

modern  conditions  means  a  real  education  of  the  man 
himself.  A  modern  farmer  must  have  a  wide  range 
of  knowledge,  appreciate  the  reign  of  law,  and  adapt 
himself  to  the  rapidly  changing  conditions  of  the  mar- 
ket. He  must  be  a  broadly  educated  man.  Thus 
there  has  developed  a  great  need  for  agricultural 
schools  and  colleges,  experiment  stations,  farmers'  in- 
stitutes, farmers'  organizations  for  social  and  business 
ends, — all  the  machinery  that  is  now  working  to  give 
increased  prosperity  to  the  farming  industry.  We 
cannot  put  too  much  energy,  and  thought,  and  money, 
into  the  running  of  this  social  machinery,  because  it  is 
vital  to  the  development  of  the  greatest  business  in 
America. 

How  the  Profits  Should  Be  Used. — But  at  the  same 
time  that  a  man  is  being  educated  in  order  to  make  a 
better  success  of  the  business  of  farming,  he  is  also 
learning  that  when  he  has  made  this  greater  profit,  he 
has  not  really  reached  the  end  of  the  road.  He  has 
not  yet  reached  his  goal.  The  next  step  is  to  learn 
how  to  use  this  profit  in  a  way  that  shall  build  him  up 
as  a  man,  develop  the  right  sort  of  family  life,  and 
contribute  to  the  welfare  of  the  neighborhood.  One 
of  the  serious  difficulties  in  our  agricultural  develop- 
ment arises  from  the  fact  that  a  good  many  farmers 
when  they  have  attained  business  success  on  a  farm, 
leave  it  for  village  or  city  life.  They  seem  to  have  no 
interest  in  the  rural  community,  after  they  have 
reached  a  certain  degree  of  wealth. 

A  Higher  Life. — All  these  considerations  lead  to 
the  thought  that  in  our  attempts  to  improve  farm  con- 
ditions, we  must  keep  in  sight  the  great  human  prob- 
lems, as  well  as  the  great  questions  of  better  crops, 
and  of  better  methods  of  selling  these  crops  at  a  profit. 
We  must  develop  the  right  sort  of  home  life.  We 
must  have  in  the  country  those  facilities  for  enjoyment 
and  culture  that  will  keep  people  alive  to  all  of  those 
things  that  make  for  a  higher  manhood  and  nobler 
womanhood. 


CHAPTER    I. 
THE    SOIL. 

By  Prof.  A.  R.  Whitson, 
Department   of   Soils,   University   of   Wisconsin. 

Section  II. — Relation  of  the  Soil  to  Plant 
Growth. 

As  agriculture  depends  on  the  soil,  a  full  knowledge 
of  the  soil  and  its  management  is  necessary  to  scientific 
farming.  The  soil  is  an  extremely  complex  mixture 
with  complex  physical,  chemical,  and  biological  prop- 
erties, all  of  which  it  would  be  interesting  to  study, 
but  from  the  standpoint  of  practical  agriculture  we  are 
interested  only  in  those  properties  of  the  soil  which 
influence  the  growth  of  crops.  We  must,  therefore, 
look  at  the  soil  through  the  plant. 

Absorption  of  JVater. — The  first  effect  of  the  soil 
on  the  plant  is  its  relation  to  the  germination  of  seed. 
This  process  begins  with  the  absorption  of  water,  and 
the  rate  at  which  absorption  takes  place  is  influenced 
by  several  factors.  Firming  the  soil  brings  the  seed 
in  closer  contact  and  so  hastens  the  absorption  of  water. 
Warm  water  is  absorbed  more  quickly  than  cold,  and 
for  this  reason  especially,  seed  germinate  more  quickly 
in  warm  than  in  cold  soils.* 

Oxygen. — Besides  moisture,  germinating  seed  re- 
quire oxygen,  so  that  while  the  soil  must  have  sufficient 
moisture  and  be  in  sufliciently  close  contact  with  the 

*  This  influence  of  temperature  can  readily  be  shown  by  placing 
equal  weights  of  dry  peas  or  beans  in  two  vessels  of  water,  one  of 
which  is  warm  and  the  other  cold,  allowing  them  to  stand  half  an 
hour  and  then  drying  the  surface  with  a  cloth  and  weighing. 


2      .     FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

seed  to  allow  the  latter  to  absorb  this  moisture,  it 
must  not  be  water-logged  nor  so  closely  packed  around 
the  seed  as  to  exclude  air,  otherwise  the  seed  will  rot 
and  fail  to  germinate.  It  is  true  that  seeds  can  germi- 
nate entirely  soaked  in  water,  but  this  happens  in  case 
of  water  which  has  had  an  opportunity  to  absorb  oxy- 
gen from  the  air,  while  water  that  remains  stagnant 
in  the  soil  for  some  time  is  robbed  of  its  oxygen  and 
is  unfit  for  the  germination  of  seed. 


A   POOR   CROP,    DUE   TO  LACK   OF   THE   ESSENTIAL   ELEMENTS. 


The  Essential  Elements. — Under  proper  conditions 
of  moisture  and  temperature  seed  will  germinate  and 
continue  to  grow  for  some  time.  Sooner  or  later, 
however,  growth  will  cease  unless  certain  chemical 
elements,  usually  spoken  of  as  the  essential  elements, 
are  available.  These  are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  sul- 
phur, potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and  iron,  and  in 
addition  hydrogen  and  oxygen  of  the  water.  These 
elements  are  absorbed  by  the  plant  from  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  salts  which  are  soluble  in  the  water.  The 
salts  are  formed  in  the  soil  as  the  result  of  chemical 
processes  which  we  will  refer  to  later.     Of  these  ele- 


THE    SOIL.  3 

ments,  phosphorus,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
are  largely  built  up  into  the  organic  compounds  which 
compose  the  tissue  of  the  plant,  while  the  remaining 
elements  are  chiefly  used  in  the  plant  as  carriers  of 
the  other  elements  and  do  not  constitute  a  component 
of  the  plant  on  maturity  but  remain  in  the  cell  sap.  In 
the  case  of  plants  which  dry  up  as  they  approach  ma- 
turity the  concentration  of  salts  in  this  way  forces  a 
considerable  part  of  these  elements  out  of  the  plant 
and  they  are  returned  to  the  soil. 

Amounts  of  Elements  Removed  by  Crops. — In 
order  to  study  the  influence  of  the  removal  of  crops 
from  the  soil  we  must  determine  the  amount  of  these 
essential  elements  which  are  removed  by  mature  crops. 
The  following  table  from  Bulletin  47  of  the  Minne- 
sota Experiment  Station  gives  the  amounts  of  these 
essential  elements  removed  by  average  crops. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PLANT  FOOD  MATERIAL  REMOVED 
BY  THE  CROPS  IN  POUNDS  PER  ACRE. 


Crop 


Wheat,  20  bu.  .  . 
Straw 

Total 

Barley,  40  bu.  .  . 
Straw 

Total 

Oats,  50  bu 

Straw 

Total 

Com,  65  bu 

Stalks 

Total 

Peas,  30  bu 

Straw 

Total 

Flax,  15  bu 

Straw 

Total 

Meadow  hay .... 
Red  Clover  hay. 
Potatoes,  300  bu 
Mangels,  10  tons 


Gross 
Weight 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

1200 

25 

12.5 

7 

2000 

10 

7-5 

28 

35 

20 

35 

1920 

28 

15 

8 

3000 

12 

5 

30 

40 

20 

38 

1600 

35 

12 

10 

3000 

15 

6 

35 

50 

18 

45 

2200 

40 

18 

15 

6000 

45 

14 

80 

85 

32 

.95 

1800 

18 

22 

3500 

7 

38 

25 

60 

900 

39 

15 

8 

1800 

15 

3 

19 

54 

18 

27 

2000 

■  30 

20 

45 

4000 

28 

66 

18000 

80 

40 

150 

20000 

75 

35 

150 

Lime 

I 

7 


9 
I . 

9- 
II 

I 
20 
21 

4 
71 
75 

3 
13 
16 
12 
75 
50 
30 


4       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Uses  of  Water  to  the  Plant  and  Amount  Required. 
— Besides  these  elements  the  plant  throughout  its 
growth  requires  water.  This  water  is  used  by  the 
plant  in  carrying  into  and  through  it  the  necessary 
salts;  in  keeping  the  cell  walls  of  the  leaf  tissue  moist, 
so  as  to  allow  them  to  absorb  carbon  dioxide  from 
the  atmosphere,  and  in  regulating  the  temperature  of 
the  plant  by  evaporation  of  water  from  the  leaf,  just 
as  the  temperature  of  the  animal  body  is  regulated  by 
the  evaporation  of  the  perspiration.  The  amount  of 
water  used  by  crops  varies  greatly  with  the  kind  of 
crop  and  with  the  climatic  conditions,  but  is  always 
large.  For  instance  in  the  growth  of  one  pound  of 
dry  matter  of  corn  about  250  to  300  pounds  of  water 
are  used;  for  potatoes,  350  to  400;  for  clover,  500  to 
600. 

Exercise. — What  is  organic  matter?  What  is  inorganic  matter? 
What  does  a  seedling  Hve  upon  before  roots  are  developed  to  take 
food  from  the  soil?  Using  the  results  in  the  Table,  calculate  the 
amount  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  removed  by  forty 
acres  of  potatoes  yielding  250  bushels  per  acre.  Compare  the 
amount  in  the  previous  question  with  that  removed  by  40  acres  of 
corn  yielding  30  bushels  per  acre.  Which  of  these  two  crops  (corn 
or  potatoes)  is  the  more  exhausting  on  the  soil?  How  many  acre 
inches  of  water  will  be  necessary  to  produce  3  tons  of  clover  hay? 

^  Section  III. — Soil  Fertility. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Soil  depends  in  part  on  the  rate 
1  at  which  the  essential  elements  for  plant  growth  be- 
come available  as  a  result  of  the  chemical  decompo- 
sition of  the  rock  particles  and  residue  of  former 
plants  of  which  the  soil  is  composed.  It  also  depends 
on  the  amount  and  availability  of  moisture,  and  on  the 
tilth  or  physical  condition  of  the  soil  with  reference 
to  the  readiness  with  which  it  can  be  penetrated  by 
the  roots  of  growing  crops.  The  decomposition  of 
the  rock  particles  is,  of  course;  very  slow,  and  is  largely 
the  result  of  the  action  of  carbon  dioxide  in  the  soil 
moisture,  just  as  is  the  case  in  the  forming  of  the  soil 


THE   SOIL.  5 

from  the  original  rock.  This  carbon  dioxide  is  set 
free  by  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  matter,  so  that 
the  presence  of  considerable  decomposing  vegetable 
matter  is  essential  to  the  fertility  of  most  soils.  More- 
over the  vegetable  matter  itself  contains  more  or  less 
of  the  same  chemical  elements  which  had  been  used 
in  the  growth  of  plants  from  which  it  was  formed. 
These  soluble  salts  accumulating  in  the  soil  constitute 
the  immediately  available  plant  food. 


ANIMAL  PRODUCTS 
TO    MARKET 


REVOLVING   FUND 


>  ^  rf .'  .<  .<  .< . 


GRAIN  AND  VEGETABLES 
^O  MARKET 

COMMERCIAL    FERTILIZER 

ATMOSPHERIC   NITROSEN 
LOSS  OF  COj  TO 
•  ATMOSPHERE 


C''X>'VXv''/X''Vo'o^^^^^^^  BASE  OF  SOIlVVVV 

Fig.  2. 


-^  The  Revolving  Fund  of  Soil  Fertility. — Figure  2  is 
constructed  to  show  the  various  factors  which  are  con- 
cerned in  soil  fertility.  As  illustrated  in  this  figure  a 
considerable  quantity  of  material  accumulates  in  the 
soil  from  the  decomposition  of  the  mineral  bases,  from 
the  residue  of  roots  and  other  portions  of  vegetation 
growing  on  the  ground,  and  from  manure  and  other 
fertilizers  added.  All  of  these  together  constitute  the 
revolving  fund  of  soil  fertility.  From  this  the  crop 
largely  derives   its   supply   of   the   essential   elements 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


cow  PKAS  IN  KOWs;   A  GOOD  METHOD  OF  MAINTAINING  SOIL  FICRTILITY. 


during  any  single  season  of  growth,  but  a  small  amount 
is  absorbed  directly  from  the  mineral  base  of  the  soil 
and  added  to  the  revolving  fund  after  going  through 
the  crop.  The  diagram  also  illustrates  the  ways  in 
which  this  revolving  fund  is  lost  by  erosion,  by  de- 
composition of  the  organic  matter,  the  carbon  dioxide 
passing  off  into  the  atmosphere;  by  the  loss  of  material 
in  grain  and  vegetables  sold  on  the  one  hand  and  of 
animal  products  on  the  other.  It  also  indicates  the 
loss  of  fertility  by  the  leaching  of  manure.  Another 
source  of  gain  is  from  the  atmospheric  nitrogen,  which 
is  absorbed  by  certain  bacteria  forming  nodules  on 
members  of  the  legume  or  pea  family  of  plants.  A 
study  of  this  diagram  will  show  the  great  complexity 
of  the  problem  of  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
It  is  possible  to  estimate  the  losses  in  some  of  the  ways 
indicated,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  products  sold  from 
the  farm  and  to  a  certain  extent  from  the  manure,  but 
the  losses  by  leaching  and  by  erosion  as  well  as  by  de- 
composition of  organic  matter,  it  is  almost  impossible 


THE    SOIL.  7 

to  estimate  with  any  accuracy,  although  we  know  that 
they  are  frequently  large,  even  greater  than  the  losses 
in  ways  which  we  can  estimate. 

Limiting  Factors  in  Soil  Fertility. — As  previously 
stated,  there  are  a  number  of  factors  which  go  to  de- 
termine the  fertility  of  the  soil,  such  as  moisture-hold- 
ing capacity,  aeration,  tilth  or  penetrability  of  the 
roots,  and  supply  of  essential  elements.  A  lack  in 
any  one  of  these  requirements  will  limit  the  power  of 
any  particular  soil  to  produce  good  crops.  If,  for 
instance,  the  supply  of  nitrogen,  potash,  or  of  water 
be  inadequate  the  amount  of  this  substance  that  is  pres- 
ent becomes  the  limiting  factor  in  crop  production. 
This  principle  is  illustrated  in  the  accompanying  dia- 
gram. Fig.  3,  which  was  devised  by  Dr.  Dobenec,  of 
Germany.  The  amount  of  water  which  the  barrel 
can  hold  is  determined  by  the  height  of  the  lowest 


Fig.  3. 


8       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Stave.  If  the  length  of  this  stave  is  increased  then 
the  next  shortest  stave  will  determine  the  capacity  of 
the  barrel,  and  so  on  until  all  are  of  equal  length. 
The  same  relation  holds  among  the  factors  determin- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Humus. — We  must  now  consider  some  of  these  im- 
portant factors.  One  of  the  most  important  is  known 
as  humus.  This  is  a  black  waxy  or  tar-like  substance 
formed  by  the  partial  decomposition  of  vegetable 
matter  in  the  soil  and  constituting  a  coating  around 
soil  grains.  Humus  is  important  in  binding  the  sands 
together,  so  as  to  give  them  greater  coherence  and  in 
part  prevent  their  being  blown  by  the  wind  as  would 
otherwise  be  the  case.  It  also  greatly  increases  the 
moisture-holding  capacity  of  the  soil,  since  this  sub- 
stance can  hold  two  or  three  times  Its  weight  of  mois- 
ture. On  heavy  clay  soils  it  has  the  effect  of  lessening 
the  tenacity  with  which  the  grains  of  soil  are  held 
together  in  lumps  and  so  improves  the  tilth.  More- 
over this  humus  contains  a  great  deal  of  nitrogen  which 
by  going  through  a  chemical  process  caused  by  the 
bacteria  in  the  soil  is  changed  Into  the  form  of  a  salt 
of  nitrogen  or  nitrate,  which  can  be  absorbed  by  the 
plant.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
the  supply  of  humus  in  the  soil  be  maintained. 

Sources  of  Humus. — Now  humus  is  chiefly  formed 
from  the  fine  roots  of  grasses  and  exists  In  large 
amounts  on  prairie  soils  where  these  grasses  have  been 
growing  for  thousands  of  years.  In  the  soil  kept  cul- 
tivated It  Is  being  continually  burned  out,  and  the  best 
method  by  which  It  can  be  handled  or  even  maintained 
Is  by  rotation  of  crops  including  the  growing  of  grasses 
a  part  of  the  time  either  for  pasture  or  hay.  Green 
manuring  crops  add  somewhat  to  this  as  does  stable 
manure,  but  to  a  very  much  less  extent  than  the  fine 
roots  of  grasses. 

Chemical  Reaction  of  Soils. — Another  important 
matter  with  reference  to  the  condition  of  soils  is  what 
Is  known   as   their  chemical  reaction,   that   is,   as   to 


THE   SOIL.  9 

whether  they  are  acid,  neutral,  or  alkaline  in  character. 
It  is  found  that  blue  litmus  paper,  used  for  testing  sub- 
stances to  determine  whether  they  are  acid  or  not, 
when  applied  to  many  soils  will  turn  pink  or  red,  indi- 
cating acidity. 

Acidity  and  Liming. — This  acidity  is  not  in  itself 
injurious  to  most  plants,  but  it  is  unfavorable  to  the 
maintenance  of  fertility.  This  is  especially  true  with 
reference  to  the  availability  of  phosphorus  and  accu- 
mulation of  nitrogen  by  legumes.  It  is,  therefore, 
usually  desirable  to  correct  this  acidity  by  adding  either 
fresh  slaked  lime  or  simple  ground  limestone  or  marl. 
The  use  of  fresh  lime  or  of  simply  water-slaked  lime 
is  somewhat  dangerous,  since  it  is  apt  to  hasten  the 
burning  out  of  the  organic  matter  or  humus.  It  is 
usually  better,  therefore,  to  use  old  thoroughly  slaked 
lime  or  finely  ground  limestone  or  marl. 

Maintaining  Fertility  with  Legumes. — The  accu- 
mulation of  nitrogen  by  legumes,  which  has  been  re- 
ferred to  above,  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost  importance 


A   FARM    WHERE   THE    MANURE    IS    NOT    PRESERVED   AND   THE    SOIL   IS 
ALLOWED  TO  RUN   DOWN. 

in  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Nitrogen  con- 
stitutes four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere  and,  of  course, 
exists  in  large  amounts  in  the  air  all  through  the  soil. 


lo      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Certain  bacteria  living  in  the  soil  penetrate  the  root 
hairs  of  plants  belonging  to  the  legume  or  pea  family, 
causing  the  development  of  small  nodules  or  tubercles 
within  which  they  develop  in  great  abundance,  and 
from  which  they  derive  a  part  of  their  nourishment. 
The  nitrogen  which  they  need,  however,  to  produce 
protoplasm  is  absorbed  from  the  air  of  the  soil,  and 
then  the  plant  absorbing  the  material  set  free  in  the 
decomposition  of  these  bacteria  in  the  tubercles  secure 
their  supply  of  nitrogen  and  build  it  up  into  their  tissue. 
It  is,  therefore,  possible  for  plants  of  this  family,  when 
these  bacteria  are  present  to  grow  well  on  soil  not 
supplied  with  organic  matter,  provided,  of  course,  they 
have  the  necessary  supply  of  potash,  phosphate,  lime, 
magnesia,  and  other  essential  elements. 

Roots  of  Legumes  Leave  Nitrogen  in  the  Soil. — 
Moreover  these  plants  not  only  secure  the  nitrogen 
in  this  way  which  is  left  in  their  seed  of  the  aerial  part 
of  the  plant,  but  a  good  deal  secured  in  this  way  is 
left  in  the  roots  of  the  plants  and  so  when  this  sod  of 
clover,  cow  peas,  or  soy  beans  or  other  such  crop  is 
plowed,  and  later  planted  to  cotton,  corn,  or  other 
crop,  not  able  to  secure  its  nitrogen  in  this  way.  It  Is 
supplied  with  nitrogen  coming  from  the  decomposition 
of  the  roots  of  the  legume  plants.  The  growing  of  a 
good  crop  of  cow  peas  or  soy  beans  will  in  this  way 
usually  leave  enough  nitrogen  in  the  soil  for  a  good 
crop  of  cotton  or  corn,  and  therefore  the  rotation  of  a 
legume  plant  with  other  crops  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant methods  to  be  used'  by  the  farmer  in  main- 
taining fertility. 

Legumes  do  not  Interfere  with  the  Growing  of 
Other  Crops. — It  Is  often  possible  to  sow  some  legume, 
such  as  crimson  clover,  cow  peas,  or  soy  beans  between 
the  rows  of  cultivated  plants  at  the  time  of  their  last 
cultivation,  which  by  growing  during  the  fall  and  fol- 
lowing spring,  add  greatly  to  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil 
without  the  necessity  of  giving  up  the  ground  an  en- 
tire year  for  this  purpose. 


THE   SOIL.  II 

Use  Legumes  for  Feed  and  Return  the  Manure  to 
the  Soil. — However,  legume  plants  are  always  richest 
in  protein,  the  most  important  food  element,  so  that 
they  should  be  grown  and  used  for  feed  on  the  farm  as 
far  as  possible.  By  so  doing  a  large  part  of  the  ni- 
trogen in  the  seed  and  hay  of  this  crop  is  returned  to 
the  soil  through  the  manure. 

Phosphorus. — Of  the  other  essential  elements 
phosphorus  is  the  chief  one  to  which  the  farmer  must 
give  thought.  It  always  exists  in  small  amounts  in 
the  soil,  usually  from  .03  to  .2  of  a  per  cent.,  and  since 


AVERAGE   PRODUCTION   REDUCED   BY   INFERTILE   SPOTS. 

it  is  required  by  all  crops  and  goes  chiefly  to  the  seed 
the  supply  in  the  soil  is  very  likely  to  be  exhausted. 
This  supply  can  be  maintained  only  by  lessening  the 
sale  of  seed  or  crops  containing  this  element  or  adding 
the  phosphorus  directly  in  the  form  of  fertilizer. 
In  the  case  of  the  cotton  crop,  for  instance,  if  the  seed 
is  brought  back  to  the  farm,  and  used  as  feed  for 
animals  kept  on  the  farm  there  is  little  loss  of  phos- 
phorus. In  dairy  states  where  cream  or  butter  is  the 
chief  thing  sold  there  is  positively  little  loss  of  phos- 
phorus except  by  leaching. 

Supplying  Phosphorus  to  the  Soil. — Untreated  or 
raw  rock  phosphate  (native  deposits — see  chapter  on 
fertilizers),  becomes  available  to  plants  only  very 
slowly,  but  is  of  course  much  cheaper,  and  has  twice 


12      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

as  much  phosphoric  acid  in  it  as  in  acid  phosphate 
(raw  rock  phosphate  treated  with  sulphuric  acid),  and 
when  used  with  considerable  amounts  of  organic  mat- 
ter, such  as  stable  or  green  manure,  becomes  available 
rapidly  enough  to  supply  crops  with  this  element  when 
the  first  application  is  in  quantities  of  a  half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a  ton  per  acre.  This  acid  phosphate,  how- 
ever, is  more  immediately  available,  and  can  be  used 
to  advantage  when  organic  matter  is  not  available. 

Potash  usually  exists  in  the  soil  in  large  enough 
amounts  so  that  when  the  soil  is  kept  properly  sup- 
plied with  organic  matter  by  the  decomposition  of 
which  carbon  dioxide  is  set  free  so  as  to  react  on  the 
mineral  part  of  the  soil  containing  the  potash,  this 
element  becomes  available.  But  certain  soils,  espe- 
cially sandy  soils,  are  often  deficient  in  this  element 
in  which  case  it  must  be  supplied  as  a  fertilizer.  From 
50  to  100  pounds  of  potash  is  a  good  application. 

Exercise. — Does  a  soil  in  good  physical  condition  or  one  in  poor 
physical  condition  have  the  greater  percentage  of  pore  space  ?  Why  ? 
What  causes  humus  to  be  black  in  color?  What  effect  will  this  have 
upon  soil  temperature?  May  green  manuring  ever  be  detrimental? 
Make  a  list  of  the  leguminous  plants  in  your  vicinity.  From  the 
results  in  Delaware  Bulletin  No.  60,  calculate  the  amount  of  nitrogen 
left  in  the  soil  when  3  tons  of  cowpea  hay  were  removed.  Calculate 
the  number  of  acres  in  your  county.  What  per  cent,  is  subject  to 
erosion?  Name  the  states  drained  by  the  Mississippi  River  and 
tributaries.  How  many  square  miles  in  the  above  area?  The  Missis- 
sippi River  deposits  3,702,758,400  cu.  ft.  of  solid  material  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  annually.  If  the  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  soil  averages  80 
pounds,  how  many  tons  does  the  Mississippi  River  deposit  annually? 
The  area  of  the  surface  of  an  acre  is  43,560  sq.  ft.  How  many  acres 
of  soil  one  foot  deep  will  be  formed  at  the  mouths  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River  every  year? 


Section  IV. — Soil  Physics. 

In  addition  to  the  influence  which  the  soil  has  on 
the  growth  of  plants  on  account  of  the  chemical  ele- 
ments which  it  furnishes,  it  greatly  affects  the  growth 
of  plants  through  physical  factors.  Among  these  are 
included  the  water  supply  of  the  plant,  conditions  with 


THE   SOIL.  13 

reference  to  root  development,  temperature,  and  aera- 
tion. Moreover,  since  cultivation  of  the  soil  is  nec- 
essary for  several  purposes,  such  as  the  covering  of 
weeds,  the  maintenance  of  tilth,  conservation  of  mois- 
ture, etc.,  the  readiness  with  which  this  cultivation  can 
be  carried  on  is  an  important  factor  in  the  value  of  the 
soil. 

Classes  of  Soil  Particles. — When  any  soil  is  exam- 
ined in  the  field  it  is  noticed  at  once  that  it  is  composed 
of  lumps  or  granules  of  various  size  which  in  turn  are 
made  up  of  the  individual  grains  varying  all  the  way 
from  a  coarse  sand  to  the  finest  dust.  These  ultimate 
•  grains  of  which  the  soil  is  composed  are  usually  classi- 
fied into  four  groups:  first,  gravel;  second,  sand;  third, 
silt;  and  the  finest  of  all  is  called  clay.  When  a  lump 
of  soil  is  placed  in  a  bottle  of  water  and  shaken  until 
all  the  particles  are  loosened  from  each  other,  and  then 
mixed  through  a  larger  volume  of  water  and  allowed 
to  settle,  it  will  be  found  that  the  gravel  and  sand  will 
settle  almost  immediately,  while  the  silt  will  remain  in 
suspension  from  a  few  minutes  to  several  hours,  and 
the  largest  part  of  the  clay  will  remain  in  suspension 
for  several  hours,  and  the  finest  even  for  days.  Now 
all  soils  are  composed  of  varying  amounts  of  these 
different  classes  of  soil  particles.  Sandy  soils  have  a 
large  percentage  of  sand,  but  also  a  small  percentage 
of  silt  and  clay.  Clay  soils  have  a  large  percentage  of 
clay  and  smaller  amounts  of  sand.  Relative  amounts  of 
these  various  sized  grains  in  any  given  soil  are  spoken 
of  as  the  mechanical  composition  of  this  soil.  The 
sandy  soils  are  those  in  which  the  sands  predominate, 
silt  those  in  which  the  silt  size  of  grains  predominates, 
and  clay  soils  those  in  which  the  clay  size  predominates. 
In  the  system  adopted  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils,  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture,  the  following  size  of  soil  grains 
are  used:  Fine  gravel  2-1  m.m.  Coarse  sand  1-.5  m.m. 
Medium  sand  .5-. 25  m.m.  Fine  sand  .25-. 10  m.m. 
Very  fine  sand  .io-.05  m.m.  Silt  .05-. 005  m.m.  Clay 
.005-0  m.m. 


14 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Per  Cent 


tftdiumsand. 


VnytiKtanil. 


Clay. 


{?.^P 


^96 


^0/9 


£7S9 


M./a 


7.7^ 


^.^3 


^.  ^o 


2-1 


1.6 


.6-25 


.25..! 


a-.05 


.05-.01 


.01.006     .006s0001 


Diameter  of  the  grains  in  mil/imeters. 


MECHANICAL  ANALYSIS  OF  A   SANDY   SOIL. 

Mechanical  Composition  and  Texture. — The  me- 
chanical composition  of  soils  is  of  great  importance 
because  it  determines  many  of  their  physical  properties. 
The  granulation  of  the  soil  or  clustering  due  to  the 
aggregation  of  these  soil  grains  is  largely  caused  by 
films  of  water  surrounding  several  grains  and  holding 
them  together  in  small  aggregates  or  clusters.  These 
in  turn  are  held  togetherwhere  they  come  in  contact  with 
each  other  by  the  same  films  so  that  the  aggregation  of 
these  clusters  into  lumps  is  the  result  of  the  surface  ten- 
sion of  the  films  of  water  surrounding  the  soil  grains. 
Now  if  we  compare  equal  volumes  of  coarse  and  fine 
soils,  we  will  see  at  once  that  there  is  a  much  larger 
area  of  surface  in  the  fine  soil  than  In  the  coarse  soil. 
There  Is,  therefore,  a  much  greater  tendency  of  the 
fine  soils  to  adhere  as  a  result  of  this  surface  tension 
of  the  soil  films.  We  can  understand,  therefore,  why 
it  Is  that  the  clay  soils  have  a  much  more  marked  ten- 


THE    SOIL.  15 

dency  to  gather  Into  large  clusters  or  lumps  than  in 
the  case  of  the  sandy  soils.  The  action  of  the  surface 
tension  of  the  water,  however,  is  not  the  only  thing 
which  produces  this  effect.  Some  salts  in  solution  in 
this  water  have  the  effect  of  acting  as  a  cement  between 
the  soil  grains,  so  that  as  the  water  dries  out  the  soil 
grains  areheldfirmly  together  often  in  very  hard  lumps. 
Cause  of  Shrinkage  of  Soils. — The  tendency  to 
shrink  possessed  by  the  soils  as  they  dry  out  is  because 
the  films  of  water  are  at  first  quite  thick,  but  become 
thinner  as  moisture  is  lost  by  evaporation  and  as  con- 
traction results  a  tension  is  produced  which  Is  finally 
relieved  by  cracking  at  the  weakest  point  causing  the 
development  of  checks  and  cracks  running  all  through 
the  soil.  If  a  tin  can  with  sharp  edges  is  forced  down 
into  the  soil  and  then  carefully  dug  up  and  turned  into 
an  upright  position  and  examined  by  filling  carefully 
with  water,  it  will  be  found  that  from  a  third  to  a  half 
of  the  can  was  occupied  by  air  alone,  indicating  that  the 
soil  only  occupies  from  one-third  to  two-thirds  of  the 
space.  This  tendency  to  form  soil  aggregates  or 
crumbs  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  6. 


§l&i 


0 


FIG.  6. 


i6      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Puddling  of  Soil  and  Its  Cause. — When  soils  are  In 
a  very  moist  condition  their  particles  are  free  to  move 
over  each  other  quite  readily,  and  if  they  are  worked 
when  in  that  condition  the  soil  grains  do  move  about 
until  they  are  packed  as  closely  as  possible,  the  soil 
clusters  being  broken  up.  The  soil  is  then  said  to  be 
puddled.  If  the  soil  is  allowed  to  dry  after  being 
Avorked  when  wet  in  this  way,  it  contracts  into  a  dense 
mass  which,  in  the  case  of  clay,  will  be  very  hard. 
This  process  when  carried  to  the  extreme  is  that  used 


INJURIOUS    RESULTS    FROM    CULTIVATION    GIVEN    AFTER    GROUND    HAD 
BECOME  TOO  DRY. 

in  brick  making.  It  is  extremely  important,  there- 
fore, for  the  farmer  to  be  careful  when  working  with 
clay  soils  that  they  are  not  worked  when  so  wet  as  to 
cause  any  of  this  puddling,  because  the  dense  chunks 
resulting  will  frequently  leave  the  soil  in  poor  tilth  for 
several  years  afterward.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
soil  is  allowed  to  dry  somewhat  before  being  worked 
the  clusters  fall  apart  readily  and  good  tilth  can  be 
developed. 

Tilth  of  Soil. — As  previously  mentioned,  humus  also 
influences  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  in  that 
it  tends  to  cement  the  grains  of  sand  more  closely  than 
would  the  films  of  water  around  such  coarse  grains, 


THE   SOIL.  17 

while  coming  between  the  fine  grains  of  clay  it  has  the 
opposite  tendency  by  lessening  the  tenacity  with  which 
they  are  held  together  so  as  to  decrease  the  tendency 
to  puddle.  Salts  which  are  developed  in  arid  regions 
are  apt  to  cause  this  to  cement  so  firmly  as  to  produce 
hard  pan.  Moreover  hard  pan  is  often  produced  at 
the  depth  at  which  the  plowing  runs  if  the  ordinary 
mold  board  plow  is  used  on  the  heavy  clay  soils  always 
plowing  to  the  same  depth.  The  plowing  of  such 
soils  rather  deeply  in  the  fall,  leaving  them  to  be  acted 
on  by  the  frosts  of  the  winter  tends  to  produce  the 
crumb-like  condition  of  good  tilth.  This  effect  of 
freezing  and  thawing  is,  of  course,  more  marked  in 
the  north  than  in  the  south,  and  the  northern  soils 
usually  have  a  better  tilth  than  do  those  of  the  south. 
Careful  attention  to  the  tilth  of  the  soil  along  these 
lines  greatly  increases  the  readiness  with  which  the 
soil  can  be  penetrated  by  the  roots.  This  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  growth  of  crops,  because  unless 
the  roots  are  able  to  penetrate  the  soil  thoroughly  in 
all  directions  they  are  unable  to  obtain  sufficient  mois- 
ture or  the  supply  of  the  various  chemical  substances 
so  necessary  for  their  growth. 

Exercise. — Make  a  physical  analysis  of  your  soil  by  putting  some 
in  a  bottle  partially  filled  with  water,  shaking  thoroughly;  then  let 
the  soil  settle.  By  the  different  sizes  calculate  the  percentage  of 
clay,  silt,  sand  and  gravel.  Name  your  soil.  Compare  the  pore  space 
in  sand  with  that  in  clay.  Which  will  hold  the  more  water  and 
why?  Compare  a  puddled  soil  with  one  in  good  condition,  in  regard 
to  its  water-holding  capacity. 


Section   V. — Water  Requirements  of  Crops. 

Forms  of  Water  in  Soil. — We  must  now  examine 
the  soil  from  the  standpoint  of  the  water  requirements 
of  the  crop.  If  the  neck  of  a  funnel  be  stoppered,  the 
funnel  filled  with  soil  in  a  granular  condition,  and  then 
water  poured  on  until  the  funnel  is  full,  we  will  have 
the  soil  in  a  saturated  condition.     The  soil  allowed  to 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


,i*«r5r 


DEVICE  TO  ILLUS- 
TRATE ACTION 
OF  CAPILLARY 
WATER. 


remain  in  such  a  condition  is  said  to  be  water-logged. 
If  now  the  stopper  be  removed  a  portion  of  the  water 
will  be  drawn  off  by  the  force  of  gravi- 
tation, and  it  is  often  spoken  of  as  the 
gravitational  water  or  drained  water. 
If  the  funnel  is  again  stoppered  and 
allowed  to  stand  with  the  surface  ex- 
posed a  large  part  of  the  moisture  re- 
tained by  the  grains  in  clusters  will 
move  up  through  the  soil  to  replace 
the  loss  by  evaporation  from  the  sur- 
face. This  upward  movement  of 
water  is  produced  by  the  surface  ten- 
sion of  the  moisture  films  which  be- 
comes greater  as  some  of  the  water 
is  lost  by  evaporation.  This  move- 
ment is  of  a  capillary  nature,  and  the 
water  held  and  moved  by  surface  ten- 
sion is  therefore  spoken  of  as  the 
capillary  moisture  of  the  soil.  If  this  funnel  of  soil 
be  allowed  to  stand  exposed  in  this  way  for  several 
days  or  weeks,  protected  from  rain,  the  soil  will  ap- 
parently become  dry.  It  is  air  dry.  However,  if  the 
soil  be  now  weighed  and  placed  in  an  oven  and  kept 
above  the  boiling  point  of  water  for  a  few  hours  and 
again  weighed  it  will  be  found  to  have  lost  more  mois- 
ture. Again  if  this  oven-dry  soil  is  exposed  to  the  air 
of  the  room  for  a  few  hours  and  re-weighed,  it  will  be 
found  to  have  taken  up  some  moisture.  This  moisture 
taken  up  in  this  way  is  spoken  of  as  hygroscopic  mois- 
ture. 

Drainage. — The  removal  of  gravitational  water  by 
natural  or  artificial  underdrainage  is  necessary  since 
if  it  remains  in  the  soil  the  latter  becomes  water-logged. 
The  oxygen  is  absorbed  by  chemical  combination  of 
substances  in  the  soil  and  roots  of  crops  are  unable 
to  develop  in  it.  Fresh  water  falling  as  rain  absorbs 
considerable  oxygen  from  the  air  so  that  if  there  is  a 
more  or  less  constant  movement  downward  of   rain 


THE   SOIL. 


19 


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pBWfc^l^?- mi»&)wBB 

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HJHHBHHHI 

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Be 

PRODUCTION    REDUCED  BY   UNDRAINED   SPOTS. 

water  through  the  soil  the  roots  of  plants  may  develop 
readily  in  it  though  the  soil  is  thoroughly  saturated. 
It  is  the  water-logged  condition  which  is  unfavorable 
to  crops. 

Water  Holding  Capacity  of  Soils. — From  this  it 
will  be  seen  that  crops  must  largely  rely  on  the  capil- 
lary moisture  of  the  soil  for  their  water  supply.  The 
amount  of  capillary  water  which  soils  are  able  to  hold 
and  the  protection  of  this  water  from  loss  by  evapo- 


APPARATUS  TO  TEST  THE  CAPACITY   OF   SOILS  TO  HOLD  WATER. 


20       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

ration  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  are  therefore  ques- 
tions of  the  utmost  importance..  The  amount  of  cap- 
illary water  which  the  soil  can  hold  is  influenced  by 
the  mechanical  composition  of  the  soil,  its  condition  of 
granulation,  and  the  height  of  the  surface  above  the 
ground  water  table,  or  saturated  portion  of  the  subsoil. 
Coarse  sands  are  able  to  hold  only  a  small  amount  of 
capillary  water  so  that  coarse  sandy  soils  often  shortly 
after  rains  will  be  found  to  have  gained  only  from  five 
to  ten  per  cent,  by  weight  of  water.  Finer  soils,  such 
as  sandy  loams  and  silt  loams  will  retain  from  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  per  cent.,  while  heavier  clay  soils  retain 
from  thirty  to  forty  or  even  fifty  per  cent,  of  water, 
expressed  in  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  water  to  that 
of  dry  soil.  Since,  as  previously  stated,  humus  has  a 
large  water-holding  capacity,  soils  in  which  this  sub- 
stance is  abundant  retain  much  more  water  than  those 
in  which  it  is  small  in  amount.  A  large  part  of  the 
advantage  which  clay  loam  soils  have  over  the  sandy 
soils  is  on  account  of  their  larger  water-holding  ca- 
pacity. This  is  especially  true  with  reference  to  the 
growing  of  crops,  such  as  grasses  for  pasture  or  hay 
purposes.  The  grass  growing  throughout  the  season 
requires  a  soil  with  a  large  water-holding  capacity  to 
enable  it  to  continue  growing  during  the  absence  of 
rain  for  a  period  of  a  few  weeks.  The  grasses  have 
developed  an  extremely  fine  root  system  which  enables 
them  to  penetrate  clay  soils  and  so  take  advantage  of 
their  large  water-holding  capacity.  Such  heavy  clay 
soils  are,  therefore,  often  spoken  of  as  grass  soils. 

Produce  Soil  Mulch  by  Frequent  Shallow  Cultiva- 
tion.— Since  a  great  deal  of  the  capillary  water  is  lost 
by  soils  on  account  of  its  being  drawn  up  to  the  surface 
and  evaporated,  it  is  important  if  possible  to  prevent 
this  evaporation.  This  may  be  done  by  producing  a 
soil  mulch.  It  is  a  simple  experiment  to  get  a  small 
stream  of  water  falling  on  a  board  to  follow  the  path 
made  for  it  by  drawing  a  wet  finger  over  it  and  mak- 
ing a  moistened  surface  in  a  zigzag  path.     The  water 


THE    SOIL. 


21 


SURFACE  CULTIVATOR   AND    DISK   CULTIVATOR    USED   TO    PRODUCE    SOIL 

MULCH. 

will  continue  to  move  along  this  wetted  path  for  some 
time.  The  fact  is  that  it  is  much  easier  for  the  water 
to  move  over  the  wetted  surface  than  over  the  dry  sur- 
face. This  principle  is  made  use  of  in  developing  the 
soil  mulch.  If  the  surface  two  or  three  inches  of  the 
soil  is  stirred  thoroughly  on  a  dry  windy  day  it  will 
become  thoroughly  dry  and  then  offer  a  great  deal  of 
resistance  to  the  upward  movement  of  the  moisture 
from  below,  and  so  greatly  lessen  the  loss  by  evapo- 
ration. This  treatment  is  of  great  importance  in  man- 
aging land  in  cultivated  crops,  such  as  cotton  and  corn 


NARROW  SHOVELS  AND  FENDERS  FOR  EARLY  CULTIVATION. 


22       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

whenever  a  dry  period  comes  on.  It'  is  of  greatest 
importance,  of  course,  in  those  sections  of  the  country 
where  the  rainfall  is  light  and  the  so-called  dry  farming 
is  based  largely  on  a  thorough  use  of  this  system  of 
mulching.  It  is,  of  course,  necessary  that  the  culti- 
vation be  not  deep  enough  to  injure  the  fine  roots 
of  crops  which  often  come  comparatively  near  the  sur- 
face, especially  during  a  wet  season.  Cultivation 
should,  therefore,  be  sufficiently  shallow  to  escape  this 
danger. 

How  to  Influence  Upward  Movement  of  Capillary 
Moisture. — Not  only  is  it  possible  in  this  way  to  pre- 
vent the  loss  of  moisture,  but  it  is  also  possible  to  in- 
fluence the  upward  movement  of  capillary  moisture  so 
that  in  a  dry  season  when  the  seed  is  placed  in  the  soil, 
moisture  can  be  drawn  up  to  the  seed.  This  can  be 
accomplished  by  rolling  the  ground,  since  this  firming 
of  the  soil  increases  the  upward  movement  of  the  mois- 
ture. Following  the  rolling  it  is  necessary  again  to 
use  the  drag  to  produce  the  soil  mulch  so  as  to  prevent 
the  loss  of  water  altogether. 

Exercise. — What  kind  of  soil  water  can  plants  use?     Which  is 
better:  level  or  ridged  cultivation?    Why? 

REFERENCES    FOR    COLLATERAL   READING. 
The  Soil. 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1895 — Reasons  for  cultivating  the  soil. 

1895 — Origin,  value  and  reclamation  of  alkali  lands. 

1897 — Some  interesting  soil  problems. 

1899 — Soil  investigations  in  the  United  States. 

1902 — The  movement  and  retention  of  water  in  soils. 

1908 — Soil  mulches  for  checking  evaporation. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

187 — Drainage  of  farm  lands. 

192 — Barnyard  manure. 

262  and  329 — Dry  farming. 

266 — Management  of  soil  to  conserve  moisture. 

278 — Leguminous  crops  for  green  manuring. 

320 — Reclamation  of  salt  marshes. 

326 — Building  up  a  rundown  cotton  plantation. 

371 — Drainage  of  irrigated  lands. 


THE   SOIL.  23 

Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos.  : 

60 — Delaware — Cover  crops  as  green  manure. 

68 — Illinois — Methods  of  maintaining  the  productive  capacity  of 
Illinois  soils. 

125 — Illinois — Thirty    years    of    crop    rotation    on    the    common 
prairie  soil  of  Illinois. 

184 — Ohio — The  maintenance  of  soil  fertility. 
Books : 

Soils — Burkett — Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Soil — King — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Soils — Fletcher — Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land — Roberts — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New 
York  City. 

Bacteriology  in  Relation  to  Country  Life — Lipman — The  Mac- 
millan Co.,  New  York  City. 

Soils  and  Fertilizers — Snyder — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York 
City. 

Soils — Lyon  &  Fippin — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 


CHAPTER    II. 
PLANT    LIFE. 

By  Dr.  Ernst  A.  Bessey, 
Department  of  Botany,  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College. 

Section  VI. — How  Plants  Live. 

Protoplasm. — All  living  things  possess  certain 
characteristics  in  common.  If  one  studies  plants  and 
animals  he  finds  that  the  living  substances  of  both  are 
practically  alike.  This  living  substance  is  called  pro- 
toplasm. It  is  more  or  less  sticky  or  slimy  and  of 
about  the  consistency  of  the  white  of  an  egg.  It  is  this 
that  grows,  that  builds  the  framework,  and  performs 
all  the  functions  of  life. 

Cells. — Protoplasm  is  found  in  all  the  familiar  ani- 
mals and  plants,  not  in  one  large  mass,  but  in  thou- 
sands of  little  parts,  microscopically  small,  called  cells. 
Each  one  of  these  has  a  thinner  or  thicker  outer  layer 
to  separate  it  from  its  neighbors  and  to  give  it  strength. 
In  most  animals  some  cells  have  thick  walls  and  make 
up  the  skeleton,  while  the  rest  of  the  cells  are  soft 
walled  and  are  to  a  large  extent  motile.  In  plants, 
most  of  the  cells  have  fairly  firm  walls,  so  that  there 
is  no  such  chance  for  motility  as  in  animals. 

Activities  of  Protoplasm. — As  long  as  the  proto- 
plasm is  alive  it  is  at  work.  One  function  that  is  pe- 
culiar to  protoplasm  is  the  ability  to  manufacture  new 
protoplasm  out  of  various  substances  which  are  not  of 
themselves  alive.  This  new  protoplasm  is  alive  and 
like  that  which  produced  it.  Other  activities  of  pro- 
toplasm are  the  taking  in  and  transformation  of  food 
substances,  manufacture  of  food  in  some  cases,  secre- 

24 


PLANT   LIFE. 


25 


tlon  of  cell  walls,  production  of  various  secretions,  res- 
piration, formation  of  new  cells,  etc. 

Plants  Require  Energy. — All  activities  of  plants  re- 
quire energy.  Protoplasm  obtains  the  energy  to  do 
Its  work  by  the  oxidation  (I.  e.,  combustion)  of  food. 
The  food  is  in  many  cases  digested  and  carried  to  the 
different  cells  in  solution,  and  there  is  oxidized  by  the 
oxygen  taken  in  from  the  air.  Carbon  dioxide,  a  gas 
which  will  not  support  life.  Is  produced  and  is  given 


SECTION   OF  LEAF. 


off.  These  processes  are  the  same  In  the  cells  of  ani- 
mals and  plants.  The  differences  lie  mainly  In  the 
way  the  food  and  oxygen  reach  the  cells.  In  animals 
we  find  regular  digestive  and  respiratory  systems  while 
these  are  practically  lacking  in  plants,  where  there  Is 
no  general  blood  system  to  carry  food  and  oxygen  to 
the  cells  and  carbon  dioxide  away  from  them. 

Plants  Manufacture  their  Food. — Common  plants 
differ  further  from  animals  In  the  fact  that  they  manu- 
facture their  own  food.  All  the  common  animals 
have  to  take  in  their  food  from  outside,  but  all  green 
plants  manufacture  their  food  in  their  green  parts. 


26 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


This  food  then  diffuses  slowly  to  all  the  living  cells 
of  the  plant,  there  to  be  used  up  as  described  above, 
or  to  be  made  use  of  in  making  new  protoplasm,  or 


PATHWAYS  OF  WATER  AND  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

in  building  the  cell  walls.  This  manufacturing  of 
food  takes  place  only  in  the  light.  The  substances 
out  of  which  it  is  made  are  water,  which  the  plants  get 
from  the  ground  if  they  are  not  water  plants,   and 


PLANT   LIFE.  27 

carbon  dioxide,  of  which  a  small  amount  is  always 
present  in  the  air  and  in  water. 

Plants  Require  Power. — In  the  plant  when  its  cells 
begin  to  manufacture  food  out  of  the  raw  materials, 
water  and  carbon  dioxide,  we  look  for  the  source  of 
the  power  and  find  it  in  the  sunlight.  Keep  a  plant 
in  the  dark  and  It  will  grow  as  long  as  the  stored-up 
food  lasts,  but  then  dies,  because  It  cannot  manufac- 
ture any  food  in  the  absence  of  light.  Ordinarily  a 
plant  manufactures  enough  food  by  day  to  last  it  over 
night,  with  some  to  spare.  Trees  that  shed  their 
leaves  produce  enough  food  during  the  summer  to 
keep  them  alive  all  winter,  and  furnish  the  material 
out  of  which  all  the  new  leaves  and  twigs  are  made, 
until  the  new  leaves  are  able  to  manufacture  food  for 
themselves.  i 

Plants  Require  Light. — Thus  It  Is  clear  why  many 
plants  do  poorly  in  the  shade;  they  do  not  get  enough 
light  to  enable  them  to  keep  up  their  food  supply. 
Trees  lighted  only  on  one  side  grow  out  In  that  direc- 
tion, while  the  branches  on  the  shaded  side  remain 
small,  hence  the  trees  become  unsymmetrical.  The 
so-called  "  smothering  out  "  of  some  weeds,  by  a  rap- 
idly growing  crop,  is  in  part  due  to  shading  them  so 
that  they  get  insufficient  light,  and  are  so  weakened 
that  they  cannot  secure  all  the  water  and  mineral  mat- 
ter they  need  from  the  soil. 

Plant  Requirements. — A  green  plant,  then,  if  it  has 
•^  plenty  of  light,  oxygen,  and  a  sufficient  supply  of 
water  and  carbon  dioxide,  has  no  need  of  any  food 
from  the  outside. 

Plants  Require  Mineral  Substances. — In  addition  to 
these,  however,  a  plant  needs  certain  other  substances. 
There  are  certain  mineral  substances  needed  to  take 
part  in  the  building  of  new  protoplasm  and  new  cell 
walls,  and  for  certain  other  purposes.  These  min- 
erals are  found  In  the  soil,  in  solution,  in  the  soil 
water,  and  are  absorbed  with  the  latter  by  the  plant. 
Most  of  these  necessary  mineral  substances  are  present 


28 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


in  sufficient  quantity  in  ordinary  soils,  but  certain  ones 
are  usually  rather  limited  in  amount,  so  that  several 
large  crops  in  succession  exhaust  the  available  supply. 
So  it  becomes  necessary  to  add  these  to  the  soil,  or  in 
other  words,  we  have  to  apply  fertilizers.     The  sub- 


TUBERCLES  OF  VELVET  BEAN  PRODUCED  BY  INOCULATION. 

stances  most  generally  applied  are  potash,  phosphoric 
acid,  nitrogen  (i.  e.,  ammonia),  and,  for  many  soils, 
lime. 

Some  Plants  Gather  Nitrogen  from  the  Air. — Al- 
though almost  four-fifths  of  the  air  is  composed  of 
nitrogen,  most  plants  cannot  make  use  of  this  supply, 
and  would  die  for  want  of  it  unless  compounds  con- 


COMPARISON  OF  VETCH   PLANTS   GROWN   UPON    INOCULATED  AND 
UNINOCULATED   SOIL. 


3©       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

taining  it  were  present  in  the  soil.  Certain  plants 
(mainly  bacteria),  have  the  power  of  making  use  of 
this  atmospheric  nitrogen.  When  these  plants  die 
their  decay  adds  this  nitrogen  to  the  soil's  supply.  Of 
greatest  benefit  to  the  agriculturist  in  this  connection 
are  the  bacteria  which  form  tubercles  on  the  roots  of 
plants  of  the  bean  family  (legumes),  such  as  bean, 
pea,  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea,  velvet  bean,  beggarweed, 
soy-bean,  lespedeza,  etc.  These  bacteria  use  the  ni- 
trogen of  the  air  and  then  when  they  die,  the  plant  in 
which  they  live  uses  them  to  get  nitrogen  from.  Thus 
plants  of  this  sort  instead  of  reducing  the  nitrogen 
supply  actually  increase  it. 

Inoculation  of  the  Soil  Sometimes  Is  Necessary. — 
The  particular  bacterium  attaches  itself  only  to  the 
kind  of  legume  to  which  it  is  suited.  Bacteria  accus- 
tomed to  forming  tubercles  on  cowpea  roots  will  not 
grow  on  clover  roots.  If  it  is  wished  to  grow  cow- 
peas  on  soil  where  there  are  no  suitable  bacteria  pres- 
ent, it  is  necessary  to  inoculate  the  soil,  either  by  sowing 
soil  from  a  field  that  has  produced  good  cowpeas, 
or,  if  such  cowpea  soil  cannot  be  found,  by  inocu- 
lating the  seed  before  sowing  with  a  pure  culture  of 
the  proper  bacteria  which  have  been  isolated  from 
cowpea  tubercles.  Such  cultures  may  be  obtained 
from  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  as  well  as  from 
various  dealers.  If  the  soil  is  used  for  inoculating 
the  field,  extreme  care  must  be  taken  that  it  comes 
from  a  field  free  from  any  diseases  of  the  crops  to  be 
grown  subsequently.  It  is  easy  to  convey  various 
fungus  diseases  and  insect  and  other  pests  (e.  g.,  root 
knot,  nematodes,  etc.)  if  soil  is  taken  from  fields 
where  such  troubles  are  present.  The  same  condi- 
tions as  herein  mentioned  apply  to  many  of  the  other 
legumes. 

Plants  Use  a  Large  Amount  of  Water. — Far  more 
water  is  taken  up  by  the  roots  than  the  plant  really 
needs  for  the  manufacture  of  food.  Large  quanti- 
ties, however,  are  lost  by  evaporation  from  the  leaves 


PLANT   LIFE. 


31 


and  this  accounts  for  the  excess  absorbed  by  the  roots. 
During  the  course  of  a  season,  a  field  of  wheat  or  corn 
will  evaporate  from  Its  leaves  a  great  many  tons  of 
water,  equal  to  many  Inches  of  rainfall. 

Roots  Absorb  Soil  Water. — To  obtain  the  neces- 
sary supply  of  water  and  mineral  matter  the  root  sys- 
tem must  be  rather  widely  spreading  and  have  a  large 
absorbing  surface.  If  the  finer  rootlets  are  carefully 
removed  from  the  soil  and  the  excess  of  soil  washed 
off,  they  will  be  found  to  have  a  short  distance  back 
from  their  tips,  bands  of  fine  whitish  hairs,  one-eighth 
of  an  Inch,  to  many  times  that  In  length.  These  so- 
called  root  hairs  penetrate  between,  and  wind  around, 
the  soil  particles,  lying  In  the  film  of  water  which  sur- 
rounds them  and  absorb  the  water.  Practically  all 
the  absorption  of  water  is  accomplished  by  these  hairs. 


ROOTS  OF  YELLOW   SOY  BEAN   GROWN   ON  LAND   INOCULATED   WITH 
TUBERCLE-FORMING   BACTERIA. 


32 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Roots  Should  Not  Be  Disturbed. — If  the  roots  are 
disturbed  these  delicate  hairs  are  pulled  off  or  broken 
so  that  almost  no  water  can  be  absorbed  until  the  root 
has  formed  new  hairs,  which  may  take  several  hours. 
So  in  transplanting  plants  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  dis- 
turbing the  roots  more  than  can  be  helped,  and  to  re- 
move some  of  the  leaves  to  check  the  evaporation  sur- 
face; otherwise  so  much  water  will  be  lost  from  the 


CROSS- SECTION  OF   ROOT. 


leaves  by  evaporation,  before  the  roots  are  able  to 
absorb  any,  that  the  plant  will  die. 

Roots  Search  Deep  for  Food. — In  some  plants  the 
distance  to  which  the  roots  will  go  in  search  for  water 
and  mineral  food  is  marvelous.  Alfalfa  roots  will 
penetrate  many  feet  downward  while  the  lateral  roots 
of  some  trees  extend  a  hundred  feet  or  more  from  the 
base  of  the  trunk. 

"^  Roots  Require  Oxygen. — Since  roots  contain  many 
living  cells  they,  too,  require  air  so  as  to  obtain  the 
oxygen  necessary  for  the  oxidation  of  the  food.  This 
is  obtained  from  the  air  present  in  the  soil.     If,  how- 


PLANT  LIFE.  33 

ever,  the  soil  instead  of  being  merely  good  and  moist 
becomes  water-logged,  so  that  all  the  spaces  between 
the  soil  particles  are  filled  with  water,  in  place  of  con- 
taining some  air,  the  roots  begin  to  suffer  because 
they  cannot  obtain  enough  oxygen.  The  result  is  that 
plants  not  native  to  such  soils  die  if  this  condition 
persists  longer  than  a  few  days. 

How  Some  Plants  Get  Air  to  the  Roots. — Certain 
plants  have  other  contrivances  for  getting  air  to  the 
roots  and  thus  can  live  with  their  roots  in  water,  or  in 
water-soaked  soil.  The  stems  may  be  hollow  and 
filled  with  air;  the  cavities  extending  down  into  the 
roots,  or  certain  roots  may  grow  up  into  the  air  as 
air-absorbing  organs,  like  the  cypress  knees  for  ex- 
ample, and  the  aerating  roots  of  some  of  the  man- 
groves. It  is  noteworthy  that  the  cypress  does  not 
form  knees  unless  the  soil  is  very  wet. 

Parasites  and  Saprophytes. — There  are  some  plants 
which,  like  animals,  do  not  manufacture  their  own 
food,  but  have  to  take  what  has  been  prepared  by  other 
organisms.  Such  plants  are  called  parasites  if  they 
feed  upon  living  animals  or  plants,  and  saprophytes  if 
they  live  on  dead  animal  or  vegetable  substances. 
They  are  not  green  and  do  not  need  light,  although 
light  is  not  harmful  to  some  of  them.  If  they  have 
any  leaves,  they  are  mostly  very  small  and  like  little 
scales.  Many  of  these  parasites  are  the  cause  of 
great  injury  to  crops  and  have  great  economic  im- 
portance. We  need  but  mention  a  few  of  the  more 
common  ones:  rust  of  grain;  smut  of  oats,  wheat  and 
corn;  black  heart  or  wilt  of  cotton  and  other  crops; 
leaf  blights  and  spots  on  the  fruits  of  most  of  our 
common  fruits;  brown  rot  of  peaches;  decay  of  tim- 
ber; dodder  or  love  vine  of  clover  and  alfalfa;  etc. 
These  as  well  as  the  methods  of  combating  them  are 
discussed  more  fully  in  the  section  on  Plant  Diseases. 

Exercise. — How  do  plants  and  animals  differ?  Why  is  shade  in- 
jurious to  some  plants?  Why  are  trees  at  the  border  of  a  field  un- 
desirable? 


34 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Section    VII. — Kinds  of  Plants. 

Number  of  Plants. — Perhaps  between  200,000  and 
250,000  different  species  of  plants  are  already  known, 
and  it  has  been  estimated  that  possibly  as  many  more 
really  exist  but  are  as  yet  unknown.  Of  the  known 
plants,  about  one-half  are  called  seed  plants,  while  the 
remainder  comprise  the  ferns,  mosses,  algae,  fungi, 
and  bacteria. 

Bacteria  are  perhaps  the  simplest  plants  known. 
They  consist  usually  of  but  one  cell  each,  or  a  few 


I.  Typical  rod-shaped  bacteria.     2.  Bacteria  with  hair-like  appendages  which  enable 
them  to  swim  in  milk  or  water. 

such  loosely  connected.  They  are  all  microscopic  in 
size,  rarely  exceeding  one  five-thousandth  of  an  inch 
in  length  and  sometimes  not  one-tenth  as  large.  They 
are  visible  to  the  naked  eye  only  when  they  occur  in 
immense  numbers,  as  slimy  masses.  They  do  not 
(with  few  exceptions)  make  their  own  food,  but  are 
either  parasites  or  saprophytes.  They  multiply  rap- 
idly by  simply  growing  in  length  and  dividing  In  the 
middle.  Under  favorable  conditions,  this  may  occur 
every  twenty  minutes,  so  that  in  ten  hours,  if  nothing 
hinders  their  multiplication,  one  germ  would  give  rise 


PLANT   LIFE.  35 

to  over  one  billion  germs.  Being  exceedingly  small  as 
well  as  numerous,  they  are  found  almost  everywhere; 
in  the  soil,  water,  milk,  food,  dust  and  even  floating 
around  in  the  air.  While  most  are  harmless  yet  some 
cause  serious  diseases  of  man  and  animals,  as  for  ex- 
ample :  tuberculosis,  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria,  plague, 
anthrax  (charbon),  glanders,  foul  brood  of  hens  and 
many  other  troubles.  Pear  blight,  black  rot  of  cab- 
bage and  cauliflower,  one  of  the  wilt  diseases  of 
melons,  crown  gall  and  many  other  plant  diseases  are 
also  due  to  bacteria.  Souring  of  milk  is  also  due  to 
these  omnipresent  plants.  On  the  other  hand,  some 
are  of  great  value  to  the  farmer,  in  that  they  add  to 
the  nitrogen  supply  of  the  soil,  or  change  the  sub- 
stances in  the  soil  into  forms  more  available  for  the 
use  of  crops.  Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the 
bacteria  which  make  the  tubercles  on  the  roots  of 
plants  of  the  bean  family. 

Algae  are  also  low  plants  but  they  are  higher  than 
bacteria.  Like  them  some  algae  have  but  one  cell  and 
are  microscopic  in  size,  but  others  have  many  cells  and 
may  attain  a  length  of  many  feet.  They  all  live  In 
water  or  In  wet  places.  They  contain  green  coloring 
matter  and  are  therefore  able  to  manufacture  their 
own  food  and  cannot  exist  without  light.  Besides  the 
green  color,  many  have  red  or  brown  colors,  and  are 
very  beautiful.  There  are  many  kinds  of  algae,  but 
few  are  of  much  economic  importance.  Some  of 
the  red  seaweeds  (erroneously  called  sea-mosses)  are 
edible.  The  kelps  and  rockweeds  are  often  thrown 
upon  the  beach  In  immense  quantities  and  are  used  for 
fertilizers.  The  green  slimy  masses  in  brooks,  ponds, 
watering  troughs,  etc.,  are  also  algae.  While  they 
are  harmless,  yet  they  are  useless. 

Fungi. — To  the  farmer  probably  the  fungi  are  of 
more  importance  than  the  algae.  They  are  plants 
with  no  leaves,  no  true  stems  and  no  roots.  They  con- 
sist of  many  microscopic  cells  festered  together  In  fine 
white  threads  which  penetrate  the  substance  on  which 


36 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


m- 


COMMON   FIELD  MUSHROOM. 


they  feed,  absorbing  nourishment  from  them.  They 
are  saprophytes  or  parasites,  i.  e.,  do  not  make  their 
own  food  and  have  no  need  of  light.  The  plant  dis- 
eases that  cause  the  most  injury  to  the  farmer  are  due 
to  fungi.     The  things  we  call  puff  balls,  toadstools, 


PLANT  LIFE.  37 

bracket  fungi,  etc.,  are  the  fruiting  bodies  of  some 
fungi.  A  few  fungi,  mainly  toadstools  and  puff  balls, 
are  edible  and  one  or  two  toadstools,  e.  g.,  the  com- 
mon mushroom,  are  cultivated.  Let  it  be  noted  here 
that  the  popular  belief  that  *'  toadstools  are  poison- 
ous, mushrooms  edible  "  is  erroneous,  since  a  mush- 
room is  a  toadstool.  Some  toadstools  are  edible, 
some  are  poisonous  and  none  should  be  eaten  unless 
one  is  absolutely  certain  that  he  has  one  of  the  edible 
kinds. 

Mosses  and  Ferris,  are  green  plants  and  therefore 
make  their  own  food.  They  are  of  little  economic  in- 
terest aside  from  their  ornamental  value.  They  are 
mostly  small,  but  in  the  tropics  some  ferns  attain  the 
dimensions  of  trees. 

Spores. — In  all  the  foregoing  plants  no  real  seeds 
are  formed.  In  most  of  them  the  new  plants  arise 
from  the  growth  of  small  bodies  consisting  of  but  a 
single  cell  and  called  spores. 

Seeds. — In  the  seed  plants  we  find  a  great  advance 
in  that  true  seeds  are  formed.  A  seed  instead  of  con- 
sisting of  a  microscopically  small  spore,  is  visible  with- 
out magnification,  and  is  made  up  of  a  great  many 
cells.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  small  plant  which  after  attain- 
ing a  certain  size  has  stopped  growing  and  become 
surrounded  by  a  protection  layer,  the  seed  coat. 
This  little  plant  remains  in  this  condition  of  suspended 
growth  until  placed  in  a  favorable  location  when  it 
absorbs  water  and  starts  its  growth  anew. 

Seed  Plants. — With  the  exception  of  mushrooms, 
which  are  fungi,  and  ferns,  all  of  the  plants  commonly 
cultivated  for  profit  or  ornament  are  seed  plants. 
This  is  also  true  of  the  plants  of  the  forests  and  jun- 
gles which  furnish  us  with  their  valuable  products. 
In  view,  therefore,  of  their  so  great  importance  the 
remainder  of  this  chapter  is  confined  to  a  discussion  of 
seed  plants. 

Exercise. — Find  and  bring  to  the  class  specimens  of  as  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  plants  as  you  can  and  which  are  not  seed  plants. 


38 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Section   VIII. — Parts   and   Structure   of   Seed 

Plants. 

Parts  of  Seed  Plants. — The  main  parts  of  such  a 
plant  in  the  vegetative  condition  are  root,  stem  and 
leaves.  The  seeds  come  from  the  flowers  which  do 
not  appear  until  the  plant  has  reached  a  certain  stage 
of  development. 

Function  of  the  Root. — The  root  has  two  main  func- 


ROOT   SYSTEM   OF   A   TOBACCO   PLANT. 

tions,  to  hold  the  plant  firmly  in  place  and  to  absorb 
the  necessary  water  and  dissolved  mineral  matters 
from  the  soil.  Some  roots  perform  only  one  or  the 
other  function,  but  in  most  plants  they  perform  both. 
In  addition  some  roots  like  those  at  the  base  of  corn 
and  some  other  plants  come  out  at  some  distance  above 
the  ground  and  act  as  braces.  In  many  plants  the 
first  root  of  the  seedling  continues  to  grow  and  is  the 
largest  and  most  important  root,  namely  the  tap  root. 


PLANT   LIFE. 


39 


On  the  other  hand  in  many  plants  lateral  roots  be- 
come of  more  importance  than  the  tap  root,  and  this 
dies  early.  Plants  of  the  latter  kind 
are  perhaps  usually  less  deeply 
rooted  and  therefore  more  easily 
transplanted  than  those  with  a  tap 
root.  In  addition  to  the  functions 
mentioned  above  many  roots  serve 
as  special  organs  for  storing  food. 
Examples  are  sweet  potatoes,  cas- 
sava (tapioca  or  manioc  plant), 
carrot,  beet,  etc. 

The  Leaves  are  the  factories  for 
the  production  of  the  plant's  food. 
In  some  plants,  as  for  example 
most  cacti,  there  are  no  leaves  and 
their  function  is  assumed  by  the 
green  stem  which  may  be  flattened 
to  resemble  a  leaf  somewhat.  Some 
plants  hold  their  leaves  only  during 
the  growing  season  and  are  called 
deciduous,  while  others  retain  them 
at  least  until  the  next  season's  leaves  have  appeared, 
often  for  several  years,  and  are  called  evergreen.  In 
the  temperate  zones  it  is  mostly  the  needle-leaved  trees 
(pines,  spruces,  cedars,  etc.),  that  are  evergreen,  while 
most  of  the  broad-leaved  trees,  except  a  few  like  holly 
and  live  oak,  are  deciduous. 

Parts  of  the  Leaf. — Leaves  consist  usually  of  a  flat- 
tened blade  strengthened  by  the  so-called  nerves  or 
veins  which  also  carry  water  to  all  parts  of  the  leaf, 
and  of  a  stalk,  called  the  petiole.  Often  there  are  two 
little  more  or  less  leaf-like  bodies  attached  at  the  base 
of  the  petiole,  called  stipules.  A  complete  leaf  is 
therefore  said  to  consist  of  blade,  petiole  and  stipules, 
but  many  leaves  may  lack  one  or  both  of  the  last  two. 
The  blade  may  be  in  one  piece  or  may  be  lobed  or  di- 
vided into  several  parts  called  leaflets,  as  for  example 
the  three   leaflets  of   a  clover  or  oxalic  leaf,  or  the 


BEET  ROOT. 


40  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

many  leaflets  of  the  leaf  of  locust,  walnut,  chinaberry, 
etc. 

The  Bud. — In  many  plants  we  find  the  leaves  com- 
ing out  of  buds  when  they  start  out  in  the  spring.  A 
bud  contains  the  young  leaves,  tightly  wrapped  and 
folded,  and  may  be  surrounded  for  protection  by  thick 
or  thin  scales,  which  are  themselves  only  modified 
leaves. 

Kinds  of  Stems. — The  stem  may  be  short,  as  in 
those  plants  whose  leaves  form  a  cluster  at  the  surface 
of  the  ground  or  may  be  much  elongated,  as  in  the  big 
trees  of  California  attaining  a  height  of  about  400 
feet.  Although  the  usual  habit  of  a  stem  appears  to 
be  upright  growth,  yet  there  are  many  exceptions. 
They  may  twine  around  other  objects  for  support,  as 
in  the  hop  or  morning  glory,  or  trail  on  the  ground. 
Some  plants,  like  the  strawberry,  may  send  out  stems 
along  the  surface  of  the  ground  which  take  root  here 
and  there,  forming  clusters  of  leaves  at  those  points; 
these  eventually  becoming  new  plants.  Such  stems  are 
called  runners.  In  some  plants  stems  are  produced 
in  a  similar  way  but  entirely  underground,  coming  to 
the  surface  at  intervals  and  producing  new  plants. 
Such  stolons  are  produced  by  Bermuda  and  Johnson 
grass,  Solomon's  seal,  golden  rod  and  many  other 
plants.  When  an  underground  stem  becomes  en- 
larged to  store  up  food  it  is  called  a  tuber.  The  most 
familiar  example  is  the  Irish  potato.  Tubers  can  be 
distinguished  from  enlarged  roots  by  the  presence  of 
buds  (or  eyes)  and  leaves  (usually  reduced  to  small 
scales,  or  entirely  lacking).  Both  of  these  are  lack- 
ing on  true  roots. 

Structure  of  Stems. — On  cutting  a  stem  across  it  is 
found  usually  to  have  the  following  structure.  At  the 
outside  is  a  thicker  or  thinner  layer,  the  bark  or  cor- 
tex, the  outer  part  of  which  may  be  alive  or  may  be 
made  up  of  a  thick  layer  of  dead  cork  cells.  Inside 
the  bark  is  the  woody  portion  and  in  the  center  is  the 
pith.     Between  the  wood  and  the  bark  is  a  thin  layer 


PLANT   LIFE. 


41 


of  cells  called  cambium.  It  is  this  that  Is  broken  when 
the  bark  is  lifted  in  budding.  The  cambium  is  lack- 
ing in  palms  and  those  other  plants  where  there  is  no 
distinction  of  cortex  and  woody  portion.  Sometimes 
the  wood  is  represented  only  by  a  few  fibrous  strands 
arranged  in  a  circle  in  the  outer  part  of  the  pith  next 
to    the    cortex.     These  strands  serve  two  purposes; 


SHOWING  GROWTH  OF  TREES. 


they  act  as  a  skeleton  to  support  the  plant  and  as  a 
water  conducting  system,  for  it  is  through  them  that 
the  water  ascends  from  the  roots.  In  those  plants 
that  live  several  years,  such  as  trees  and  shrubs,  these 
fibrous  strands  increase  in  number  and  size,  and  the 
spaces  between  become  filled  with  wood  fibers  so  that 
all  the  space  within  the  bark  is  a  solid  mass  of  wood. 
This  grows  in  thickness,  by  the  layer  of  cambium  next 
to  it  turning  to  wood,  while  the  cambium  layer  next 


42       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

to  the  bark  adds  to  the  bark  on  the  inside.  Each  pe- 
riod of  growth  of  wood  is  marked  as  a  ring,  so  that 
in  the  temperate  climates  where  the  growth  periods 
are  annual,  the  age  of  a  tree  can  be  quite  accurately 
determined  by  counting  the  rings  in  the  cross  section 
of  the  trunk  near  the  ground. 

Parts  of  Stems. — A  stem  may  be  unbranched,  as  in 
most  palms,  but  usually  is  branched.  At  the  end  of 
each  branch  is  the  growing  point.  This  produces  as 
it  grows,  little  projections  on  its  sides  which  become 
the  leaves.  At  the  point  where  a  leaf  joins  the  stem, 
a  bud  is  usually  produced.  It  is  by  the  growth  of  such 
buds  that  branching  of  the  stem  occurs.  Often  they 
do  not  grow  unless  the  terminal  bud  is  injured,  in 
which  case  they  push  out. 

Exercise. — Bring  in  seed  plants  showing  different  kinds  of  roots. 
Find  as  many  different  kinds  of  stems  as  possible.  Bring  in  speci- 
mens of  leaves  that  are  complete  and  that  have  certain  parts  lacking. 


Section  IX. — Reproduction  of  Plants. 

Flowers. — When  the  plant  has  reached  the  proper 
stage  of  development  it  prepares  for  seed  production. 
With  the  exception  of  the  plants  classed  as  Gymno- 
sperms,  which  will  be  mentioned  further  on,  this  takes 
place  in  special  organs  called  flowers. 

Stamens  and  Pistils. — The  essential  parts  of  flowers 
are  two;  stamens  and  pistils.  In  the  stamen  is  pro- 
duced the  pollen,  a  dust  like  usually  yellowish  powder 
(more  rarely  a  sticky  mass  of  fine  grain).  This  must 
be  brought  in  some  way  to  the  top  of  the  pistil,  where 
each  grain  of  pollen  grows  out  into  a  microscopic  tube 
which  bores  its  way  down  inside  of  the  pistil,  until 
it  reaches  the  minute  bodies  called  ovules  that  are  to 
become  the  seeds.  Entering  one  of  these,  the  contents 
of  the  pollen  tube  unite  with  its  contents,  and  as  a  re- 
sult of  the  union  a  new  plant  begins  to  grow.  This 
attains  a  certain  size  and  then  stops  its  growth,  be- 


PLANT   LIFE. 


43 


comes  filled  with  or  surrounded  by  food,  is  provided 
with  a  protection  coat  and  is  called  a  seed.  In  prob- 
ably the  majority  of  cases  several  stamens,  and  one 
or  sometimes  more  pistils,  occur  in  the  same  flower, 
yet  it  often  happens  that  they  occur  in  separate  flowers 


ENLARGED   SECTION   OF   A   BARTLETT   PEAR   FLOWER. 

St,  style;  sp,  sepal;  /,  filament;  a,  anther;  s,  stigma;  p,  petal;  d,  dish;  ov,  ovule. 

on  the  same  plant  as  in  corn,  or  even  on  separate 
plants,  as  in  hops,  willow,  date  palms,  Canada  thistle, 
etc. 

Parts  of  the  Pistil. — The  pistil  consists  of  a  basal, 
enlarged  portion,  called  the  ovary,  within  which  the 
seeds  are  developed,  and  a  receptive  portion  called  the 


44 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Stigma,  which  the  pollen  must  reach  In  order  to  fer- 
tilize the  bodies  (called  ovules),  which  become  seeds. 
There  may  be  or  not,  depending  upon  the  plant,  a 
longer  or  shorter  piece  called  the  style  between  the 
stigma  and  ovary.  In  the  young  ear  of  corn  the  young 
grain  is  the  ovary,  the  silk  being  the  style  out  to  the 
feathery  part  which  is  the  stigma. 

Parts  of  the  Stamen. — The  stamens  consist  of  two 
(or  four)  little  elongated — usually  yellow — bags  or 
boxes,  in  which  the  pollen  is  produced,  and  of  a  stalk 
supporting  them.  These  parts  are  called  respectively 
anthers  and  filament. 

Petals  and  Sepals. — In  addition  to  stamens  and  pis- 
tils most  flowers  have  one  or  two  sets  of  somewhat  leaf- 
like organs,  those  next  to  the  stamens  usually  being 
colored,  the  petals,  while  the  outside  set  is  mostly 
green,  the  sepals.  The  petals  considered  together  are 
called  the  corolla  and  the  sepals  together  the  calyx. 
The  whole  flower  is  borne  on  a  longer  or  shorter 
stalk,  or  this  may  be  wanting. 

Variation  in  Arrangement. — This  general  scheme 
of  the  flower,  I.  e.,  beginning  at  the  outside,  sepals, 

petals,     stamens     and 

r st  pistil,  exhibits  endless 

variation.  The  sepals, 
petals  and  stamens 
may  become  united  to 
each  other,  each  In  its 
own  series,  or  the  sta- 
mens may  be  united 
to  the  petals  and  ap- 
pear to  arise  from 
them.  The  axis  of 
the  flower  may  be 
widened  where  the 
calyx,  corolla  and  sta- 
mens join   it,    leaving 

SECTION  OF  A   TOMATO  FLOWER.  ^^^        Jg^JJ     ^^^^  ^^    J^ 

cx,  calyx:  c,  corolla:  s, stamens;  i), pistil;  o, ovary;  •       ^.l  'jji  r 

s<,  stigma.  were  in  the  middle  or 


PLANT  LIFE. 


45 


a  disk  at  whose  edges  are  the  stamens,  petals  and  se- 
pals. This  widened  disk-like  portion  may  turn  up  and 
surround  the  pistil  so  that  the  other  organs  are  borne 
above  the  ovary  instead  of  below  it.  The  flower  in- 
stead of  being  symmetrical  may  be  one  sided.  The 
members  of  each  part  are  also  subject  to  modification 
and  any  of  the  parts  may  be  lacking,  although  of 
course  stamens  and  pistils  are  not  both  absent  in  the 
same  flower. 

Fertilization. — Many  flowers  secrete  nectar,  a  sug- 
ary liquid,  which  is  eagerly  sought  by  insects.  Many 
of  the  modifications  sug- 
gested above  are  to  at- 
tract insects  (or  humming 
birds)  to  the  flowers  and 
to  cause  them  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  stamens 
and  pistils  in  their  at- 
tempts to  obtain  the  nec- 
tar. In  this  way  pollen 
is  carried  from  one  flower 
to  another  and  fertiliza- 
tion is  made  more  certain. 
As  a  general  rule,  which 
has,  however,  many  ex- 
ceptions, we  can  safely 
say  that  showy  flowers, 
as  well  as  inconspicuous 
ones,    which    produce    an 

abundance  of  perfume  or  honey,  are  usually  pollinated 
by  the  aid  of  insects  or  birds,  while  those  that  are  not 
so,  are  wind  pollinated,  i.  e.,  the  pollen  is  fine  and  pro- 
duced in  great  abundance  and  floats  in  the  air,  some 
of  it  eventually,  by  chance,  falling  on  the  stigma  of 
flowers  of  the  same  kind.  Most  grasses  (e.  g.,  corn), 
many  of  the  trees  such  as  oaks,  willows,  pines,  etc., 
are  wind  pollinated. 

Close  Fertilization. — In  a  number  of  cases  the  pol- 
len is  set  free  from  the  stamen  before  the  flower  opens 


BUMBLE-BEE   POLLINATING   RED 
CLOVER. 

a,  stamens;   b,  proboscis  of  bee;   c,  where 
bee  receives  pollen. 


46 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


and  the  pistil  is  thus  fertilized  by  pollen  from  the  same 
flower,  i.  e.,  is  close-fertilized  or  self-pollinated.  This 
is  generally  the  case  with  wheat,  oats,  peas  and  many 
other  plants.  Mostly,  however,  the  pollen  is  not  set 
free  till  the  flower  opens.  Frequently,  perhaps,  in  the 
majority  of  cases  the  stigma  is  not  ready  to  receive 
pollen  at  the  same  time  that  the  pollen  in  that  flower 
is    being    shed,    so    that    self-pollination    is    avoided. 


RASPBERRY-BLACKBERRY    HYBRID    "  PRIMUS  "   AND    PARENTS. 
California  dewberry,  female  parent ;  Siberian  raspberry,  male  parent. 

Some  plants,  indeed,  are  sterile  to  their  own  pollen 
and  require  pollen  from  a  different  plant  of  the  same 
kind.  Such  plants  of  course  are  especially  dependent 
upon  insects.  Some  varieties  of  pears  and  other  fruits 
which  are  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting,  are 
sterile  to  pollen  from  the  same  variety,  so  that  plants 
of  other  varieties  of  the  same  fruit  have  to  be  set 
among  them  to  insure  fruitfulness. 

Hybridization. — Ordinarily,  in  the  natural  course 
of  events,  it  is  only  when  pollen  of  the  same  species 
of  plant  reaches  the  stigmas  that  seed  formation  oc- 


PLANT   LIFE.  47 

curs.  However,  it  is  known  that  often  pollen  of  a 
closely  related  kind  of  plant  is  able  to  cause  fertiliza- 
tion and  produce  seeds  capable  of  germination.  This 
is  called  hybridization.  The  plants  growing  from 
these  seeds  usually  show  more  or  less  of  a  blending 
of  the  character  of  the  two  parents,  or  some  characters 
of  the  one  and  some  of  the  other.  Many  such  hybrids 
occur  in  nature,  but  more  are  known  as  the  result  of 
human  effort. 

Fruit  and  Seed  Distribution. — After  pollination, 
when  the  seeds  begin  to  grow  there  begins  the  forma- 
tion of  what  is  termed,  botanically,  a  fruit.  Used  in 
this  sense  a  fruit  is  any  structure,  whether  edible  or 
inedible,  fleshly  or  dry,  that  is  produced  to  accompany 
or  enclose  the  seeds.  Usually  the  corolla  falls  off 
and  often  the  calyx  as  well.  In  the  simplest  fruits  the 
ovary  simply  enlarges  and  forms  a  sort  of  pod  which 
becomes  dry  as  the  seeds  ripen  and  splits  open  to  let 
them  escape.  Examples  are  the  bolls  of  cotton,  pods 
of  beans,  peas,  mustard,  etc.  In  other  cases  the  outer 
part  of  the  ovary  becomes  fleshy  and  edible  with  the 
result  that  it  is  sought  after  by  animals  for  food,  the 
seeds  being  carried  thus  to  various  distances.  Cher- 
ries, plums,  etc.,  are  good  examples  of  this  class.  The 
calyx,  too,  may  become  fleshy  or  the  flower  stalk  or 
the  flower  axis.  The  latter  is  the  case  in  the  straw- 
berry. The  ovary,  or  the  parts  outside  of  it,  may  de- 
velop hooks  to  catch  in  animals'  hair  to  aid  in  distri- 
bution, or  the  calyx  may  have  a  downy  structure  for 
wind  conveyance  as  in  the  thistle  or  dandelion.  The 
seeds  often  have  various  devices  to  aid  in  distribution 
by  wind,  water  or  animals.  A  few  fruits  explode 
throwing  the  seeds  out  to  a  great  distance. 

Kinds  of  Seed  Plants. — There  are  two  great  sub- 
divisions of  seed  plants;  the  flowering  plants  with  real 
flowers,  with  the  seed  produced  inside  of  the  ovary 
and  the  Gymnosperms  where  no  true  flowers  occur, 
with  the  seed  produced  on  open  scales.  Usually  these 
scales  are  bunched  together  into  a  dry  or  fleshy  cone. 


48       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  pollen  is  produced  in  stamens  also  arranged  in  a 
cone.  Examples  are  pine,  spruce,  cedar,  cypress, 
juniper,  etc.  The  needle-leaved  trees  and  some  others 
belong  to  this  group. 

Kinds  of  Flowering  Plants. — The  true  flowering 
plants  are  again  divided,  the  one  class  possessing  seeds 
with  but  one  seed  leaf  and  with  the  parts  of  the  flow- 
ers mostly  in  threes,  the  other  with  two  seed  leaves 
and  the  parts  of  the  flowers  mostly  in  fives.  The  first 
class  has  its  leaves  with  the  veins  mostly  all  parallel, 
while  in  the  second  class  the  veins  are  mostly  net-like 
or  diverging.  In  the  trees  belonging  to  the  first 
group  the  trunk  does  not  regularly  increase  in  thickness 
as  it  gets  older,  while  in  the  second  class  the  wood  in- 
creases in  thickness  each  year  by  the  so-called  annual 
rings.  All  the  grasses,  palms,  lilies,  orchids,  etc.,  be- 
long to  the  first  group,  while  to  the  second  belong  most 
of  the  remaining  cultivated  plants;  e.  g.,  fruits  such  as 
apple,  pear,  peach,  orange,  persimmon;  most  of  the 
vegetables,  as  beet,  potato  (sweet  and  Irish),  turnip, 
cabbage,  artichoke,  carrot,  etc.,  the  various  nuts,  and 
practically  all  timber  trees  except  the  needle-leaved 
ones. 

Stages  of  Plant  Development. — In  the  develop- 
ment of  a  plant  from  the  seed  we  can  distinguish  sev- 
eral stages.  Usually  three  are  considered,  viz.,  ger- 
mination, growth  and  maturity.  In  reality  the  one 
grades  into  the  other,  by  such  gradual  degrees,  that  the 
distinctions  are  mostly  somewhat  artificial.  Growth 
may  occur  in  all  three  stages,  and  is  always  present  in 
the  first  two.  As  was  pointed  out  a  seed  is  simply  a 
young  plant,  with  development  arrested,  surrounded 
by  or  containing  sufl'icient  food  to  give  it  a  start,  until 
it  is  far  enough  developed  to  manufacture  enough  food 
to  supply  its  own  needs. 

Parts  of  a  Seed. — In  a  ripe  seed  we  can  distinguish 
within  the  seed  coat  the  young  plant,  often  called  the 
embryo,  it  being  often  surrounded  by  a  layer  of  cells 
serving  to  feed  it  when  it  grows,  the  endosperm.     In 


PLANT   LIFE.  49 

the  embryo  itself  we  can  usually  distinguish  one  or  two 
seed   leaves,    the    beginnings  of  the  next  leaves   (plu- 
mule), and  the  radicle  (the  part 
that  forms  the  stem  below  the      e -/^^^S 

seed  leaves  and  the  roots).  d  — j^^^^^K       * 

Germination. — When    the  Ijj^P^  Wm 

seed  is  placed  where  the  condi-  IK^  ^^^         * 

tions   of  warmth   and  moisture      o -|^p>Sii|        * 

are  favorable  it  absorbs  water,  m^"^ w^ 

swells  and  often  bursts  its  coat.  ^^i^ii*/^ 

The  radicle  emerges  and  turns  seed  of  bean. 

downward.  The        seed-leaves  a,  seed  coat;  6,  cotyledon;  c, 

•.!_  '1  J      plumule:  d,  radicle;  e,  scar  left 

may  either  remain  underground    by  removal  of  cotyledon. 
in  the  old  seed  coat  while  the 

plumule  pulls  out  and  pushes  up  to  the  air  as  in  the 
pea,  or  the  whole  seed  may  emerge  from  the  ground, 
the  seed-leaves  opening  out  and  turning  green  and  be- 
ginning to  manufacture  food  as  in  the  bean,  cucumber, 
cotton,  etc.  The  first  few  leaves  after  the  seed-leaves 
are  in  nearly  all  cases  less  complex  than  the  latter  ones. 
Thus  the  clover  leaf  that  follows  the  seed-leaves  has 
but  one  leaflet  instead  of  three. 

Length  of  Life. — After  a  certain  length  of  time  we 
find  that  the  production  of  flowers  begins.  For  many 
plants  this  terminates  the  period  of  growth,  death  en- 
suing after  the  seeds  are  ripened,  but  for  many  others 
the  plant  continues  to  grow,  producing  flowers  and 
seeds  at  yearly  intervals.  From  germination  of  seed 
until  death  of  the  mature  plant,  may  be  only  six  weeks 
for  some  desert  plants,  while  many  trees  do  not  begin 
to  flower  until  many  years  old  and  live  hundreds  of 
years. 

Reproduction  of  Plants. — As  a  rule  most  plants  are 
not  solely  dependent  upon  seed  production  for  their 
reproduction,  or  at  least  other  methods  of  multiplica- 
tion can  be  applied  even  when  they  do  not  occur  nat- 
urally. Thus  some  plants  give  rise  to  new  ones  at 
various  points  on  their  roots  as  in  the  suckers  of  plums, 
others  have  root-stalks    (underground  stems),  which 


50       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

emerge  at  various  distances  from  the  parent  plant  and 
produce  new  plants.  Tubers  are  swollen,  food-stuffed 
underground  stems  for  reproduction  purposes.  Some 
plants  take  root  at  the  ends  of  long  recurring  stems, 
as  in  black  raspberries.  Bulbs  are  formed  by  many 
plants  both  below  and  above  ground,  as  in  the  onion. 
But  in  addition  to  their  natural  means,  many  plants 
will  take  root  and  grow  when  their  stems  are  placed  in 
moist  soil  or  in  water.  These  are  called  cuttings. 
Others  take  root  when  the  stem  is  laid  down  and  cov- 
ered at  one  point  with  earth,  layering,  as  it  is  called. 
A  few  plants  like  some  begonias,  form  new  plants  if 
a  single  leaf  is  placed  on  wet  sand.  Some  roots  can 
be  treated  as  cuttings,  e.  g.,  horseradish,  while  in 
other  plants  the  crown  of  the  plant  with  attached  roots 
can  be  separated  into  many  parts,  each  capable  of  be- 
coming a  new  plant,  as  in  the  violet. 

Grafting  is  the  process  of  inserting  a  portion  of  a 
stem  (with  at  least  one  bud)  of  one  plant,  into  the 
stem  or  root  of  another  plant,  in  such  a  way  that  the 
parts  unite  completely,  and  growth  of  the  inserted  por- 
tion ensues.  The  part  inserted  is  called  the  cion,  the 
other  the  stock. 

Budding  is  simply  a  form  of  grafting  in  which  the 
cion  consists  of  a  small  piece  of  the  bark  containing 
one  bud.  This  is  slipped  into  a  slit  in  the  bark  of 
the  stock,  in  such  a  way  that  the  bark  laps  over  the 
bark  of  the  cion,  leaving  only  the  bud  and  a  small  piece 
of  bark  exposed.  The  growth  resulting  from  any  of 
the  buds  of  a  cion  is  like  the  tree  from  which  the  cion 
came.  Then  it  is  possible  to  propagate  a  good  sort 
of  fruit,  and  be  sure  that  the  trees  obtained  will  be  of 
the  kind  desired.  The  same  is  true  of  cuttings,  layer- 
ings  and  other  methods  of  propagation  mentioned 
above. 

Stocks  Used  for  Grafting. — In  grafting,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  seedlings  of  the  same  species  of  plant  are 
used  for  stocks.  Sometimes  closely  related  species  are 
used,  as  quince  stocks  for  pear  cions  to  produce  dwarf*-). 


PLANT   LIFE.      ,  51 

ing  of  the  latter,  American  grape  stocks  for  the  Euro- 
pean grape  to  avoid  the  ravages  of  the  insect  called 
Phylloxera,  which  kills  the  roots  of  the  latter  but  In- 
jures those  of  the  former  only  a  little.  Grafting  Is 
not  successful  except  when  clon  and  stock  come  from 
closely  related  plants. 

Exercise. — Examine   flowers   of  wild   rose,  bean,   mustard,   Irish 
potato,  sunflower,  or  aster,  lily,  corn  and  canna  and  find  the  different 
parts,  noting  their  number  and  arrangement.     How  many  kinds  of 
,  fruits  (speaking  botanically)  can  you  find? 


Section  X. — Plant  Breeding. 

In  the  various  forms  of  grafting  and  other  methods 
of  propagation  mentioned  the  operator  makes  use  of 
sorts  of  plants  already  existent.  But  It  is  possible  to 
make  use  of  methods  by  which  Improved  sorts  are  pro- 
duced. These  can  then  be  perpetuated  by  grafting 
or  other  means.  This  production  of  new  sorts  is 
called  Plant  Breeding. 

Seed  Selection. — The  simplest  form  of  this  Is  seed 
selection.  It  Is  based  upon  the  fact  that  plants  rarelv 
come  absolutely  "true  to  seed."  In  other  words  all 
plants  grown  from  seeds  vary  some  from  each  other 
and  from  the  parent  plant.  In  the  case  of  the  ordi- 
nary fruits  this  Is  very  noticeable,  while  in  some  plants 
that  are  ordinarily  grown  from  seed  the  variation  Is 
slight,  but  even  there  It  exists.  Seed  selection  con- 
sists simply  in  saving  the  seed  of  those  few  plants  out 
of  hundreds  or  thousands  grown  which  seem  to  show 
the  most  desirable  characteristics. 

Methods  of  Seed  Selection. — For  the  farmer  the 
production  of  new  sorts  Is  perhaps  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, but  he  can  use  this  method  to  improve  the  yield 
and  quality  of  his  main  crops  with  but  a  few  hours  ex- 
tra work  each  year.  Shortly  before  the  seed  Is  ripe 
he  goes  over  his  field  and  picks  out  a  number  of  plants 
that  seem  to  him  to  come  nearest  to  his  ideal  of  what 


52      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

that  plant  should  be,  paying  attention  to  vigor,  shape, 
productiveness,  earliness,  etc.,  of  the  plant  as  well  as 
the  special  features  of  the  parts  for  which  the  plant 
is  grown  (e.  g.,  grain,  fiber,  fruit,  etc.).  These  plants 
are  marked  and  when  the  seed  is  ready  for  gathering 
they  are  taken  by  themselves  and  the  seed  saved  for 
next  year's  planting.  Enough  may  be  taken  in  some 
crops  to  plant  all  of  the  next  crop,  but  with  some  only 
enough  can  be  selected  in  this  way  to  plant  in  a  plot 
by  itself,  all  the  seed  from  this  plot  being  used  the 
following  year.  If  possible  the  seed  of  each  selected 
plant  should  be  kept  by  itself  and  a  certain  number 


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COTTON,  SHOWING  IMPROVEMENT  PRODUCED  IN    LENGTH  AND  QUANTITY 
OF  FIBER  BY   THREE  YEARS  OF    SELECTION. 

from  each  lot  tested  as  to  its  power  of  germination. 
That  lot  or  those  lots  only  should  be  saved  that  show 
a  high  rate  of  germination.  The  lighter  seeds  should 
be  discarded  as  the  best  plants  are  produced  by  the 
heavier  seeds.  One  step  further  in  advance  consists 
in  roguing  the   fields.     This  means  to  go  over  the 


PLANT   LIFE. 


S3 


field  just  before  the  flowers  are  opening  and  remove 
all  plants  that  are  very  poor,  or  that  deviate  too  far 
from  the  ideal,  so  that  their  pollen  may  not  reach  the 
pistils  of  the   remaining  plants   and  cause  their  bad 


TOBACCO   SEEDLINGS  FROM  LIGHT   (3I-3),   MEDIUM   (3I-2),   AND  HEAVY 
(3I-1)   GRADES  OF   SEED. 

character  to  be  given  to  the  next  generation.  Of 
course  this  is  unnecessary  in  those  plants  when  the  flow- 
ers are  self-pollinated. 

Improvement  by  Artificial  Cross-Pollination. — By 
seed  selection  only  those  characters  can  be  chosen  that 
happen  to  appear  as  natural  variations  among  the 
plants  grown.  We  possess  the  power,  however,  by 
artificial  cross-pollination,  of  combining  the  desirable 
characters  of  different  plants.  Of  course  this  method 
is  limited  by  the  fact  already  mentioned  that  only  very 
closely  related  plants  can  be  crossed  successfully,  but 
it  is  readily  applicable  to  different  varieties  of  the  same 
species  of  plant,  as  for  example  various  sorts  of  cot- 
ton, wheat,  corn,  etc. 

Examples  of  Artificial  Cross-Pollination. — A  few 
examples  will  show  what  can  be  accomplished.  The 
common  sweet  orange  is  killed  by  cold  only  a  few  de- 


TOBACCO,    SHOWING    UNIFORMITY   OF    TYPE    SECURED    BY    SEED 
SELECTION. 


PLANTS   SHOWING  LACK  OF   UNIFORMITY  OF  TYPE  FROM   NEGLECT 
OF   SEED   SELECTION. 


PLANT  LIFE.  55 

grees  below  freezing,  while  the  trifoliate  orange  en- 
dures a  temperature  down  to  zero  or  colder.  The 
fruit  of  the  latter  is,  however,  practically  inedible. 
The  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  succeeded  in  crossing 
the  trifoliate  and  the  sweet  orange,  obtaining  a  num- 
ber of  seeds.  Of  the  plants  obtained  from  these  seeds 
many  were  worthless  but  some  bore  edible  fruits,  not 
so  good  as  the  sweet  orange  it  is  true,  but  far  superior 
to  the  fruit  of  the  trifoliate  orange.  Furthermore, 
they  are  capable  of  enduring  considerable  cold,  thus 
enabling  farmers  to  grow  a  kind  of  orange  far  north 
of  the  orange  belt.  The  watermelon  is  subject  to  a 
disease  which  spreads  through  the  soil  and  entering 
the  roots  causes  the  plant  to  die  by  choking  up  the 
water-conveying  vessels,  whence  the  name  "  wilt  "  is 
applied  to  the  disease.  The  inedible  stock  melon  or 
citron  is  not  subject  to  the  disease.  By  crossing  the 
latter  on  a  choice  variety  of  watermelon,  and  selecting 
and  inbreeding  for  several  generations  those  of  the 
progeny  that  possessed  the  right  color,  shape,  vigor, 
abundance  of  melon  and  resistance  to  the  disease  have 
been  produced.  By  crossing  the  slow-growing  black 
walnut  with  the  Japanese  walnut,  Luther  Burbank  of 
California  has  produced  a  variety  of  walnut  very 
rapid  in  its  growth,  and  yet  possessing  wood  of  an  ex- 
cellent quality. 

Methods  of  Hybridization. — The  methods  used  are 
essentially  as  follows:  For  the  two  parents  are  chosen 
closely  related  species,  or  plants  of  different  varieties 
of  the  same  species,  each  possessing  certain  charac- 
teristics which  it  is  desired  to  combine  in  the  new  va- 
riety sought.  One  is  chosen  to  bear  the  seed  and  one 
to  furnish  the  pollen.  Some  flowers  of  the  former 
are  selected  shortly  before  they  are  ready  to  open, 
and  the  petals  are  removed  with  scissors  or  pried  apart 
and  the  yet  unopened  stamens  removed,  disturbing  the 
flower  as  little  as  possible.  This  is  to  prevent  any 
chance  of  self-pollination.  These  flowers  are  then 
enclosed  in  paper  bags  so  as  to  prevent  the  access  of 


56  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

insects  which  might  bring  pollen.  When  the  stigma 
has  become  receptive,  the  bag  is  removed  and  pollen 
applied  from  ripe  stamens  taken  from  the  plant  chosen 


ORANGE  FLOWER  BUD;    MATURE  ORANGE  FLOWER;  AN  EMASCULATED 
ORANGE  FLOWER. 

a — shows  where  anthers  were  detached. 

to  be  the  other  parent.  The  bag  is  again  replaced 
until  development  has  proceeded  so  far  that  the  stigma 
is  no  longer  receptive.  If  the  two  parents  are  closely 
enough  related  seeds  will  be  formed.  The  plants  aris- 
ing from  these  may  resemble  either  parent  or  may  be 
intermediate.  If  they  possess  the  characteristics 
sought  for  and  are  capable  of  being  propagated  by 
grafting  or  cuttings,  etc.,  this  can  be  done  and  the 
work  is  accomplished.  However,  if  they  are  of  a 
sort  propagated  by  seed  they  are  allowed  to  flower 
and  produce  seed,  of  course  excluding  accidental  pol- 
lination from  outside. 

Variation  in  the  Second  Generation. — The  plants 
of  the  second  generation  are  usually  very  variable, 
showing  all  sorts  of  combinations  of  the  various  char- 
acters of  the  parents,  or  they  may  resemble  one  or  the 
other  of  them.  Those  which  show  the  desired  com- 
bination of  characters  are  self-pollinated  and  their  seed 
sown  again.  Usually  in  the  course  of  a  few  genera- 
tions, the  race  becomes  fixed  and  the  characters  per- 
manent so  long  as  pollination  by  some  other  variety  is 
prevented. 

Exercise. — How  would  you  improve  the  yield  of  corn  on  your 
farm  ?    How  would  you  test  the  germinating  power  of  seeds  ? 


PLANT   LIFE.  57 

REFERENCES   FOR   COLLATERAL   READING. 
Plant  Life. 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1896 — The  superior  value  of  large  heavy  seed. 

1897 — Hybrids  and  their  utilization  in  plant  breeding. 

1898 — Pollination  of  pomaceous  fruits. 

1898 — Improvement  of  plants  by  selection. 

1899 — Progress  of  plant  breeding  in  the  United  States. 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  Nos. : 

58 — The  vitality  and  germination  of  seeds. 

78 — Improving  the  quality  of  wheat. 

96 — Tobacco  breeding. 
Division   of  Vegetable   Physiology  and  Pathology,  U.   S.   Dept.   of 
Agriculture,  Bulletin  No. : 

29 — Plant  breeding. 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. : 

157 — The  propagation  of  plants. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No. : 

251 — Cornell — Plant  breeding  for  farmers. 
Books : 

Plant  Breeding — Bailey — Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The   Essentials   of  Botany — Bessey — Henry   Holt  &   Co.,    New 
York  City. 


CHAPTER    III. 


MANURES  AND  FERTILIZING  MATERIALS. 

By  Prof.  J.  E.  Halligan, 
Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Experiment  Station. 

Section  XL — Farm  Manures. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  manures,  natural  manures  and 
artificial  manures  or  commercial  fertilizers. 

Natural  Manures. — Under  this  head  come  those 
fertilizing  materials  which  are  not  manufactured,  but 
occur  naturally.  Farm  manure,  marl,  wood  ashes, 
muck,  and  gypsum  are  natural  manures. 

Farm  Manure. — This  fertilizer  is  of  a  variable 
composition,  the  texture  or  the  coarseness  of  which 
depends  upon  the  kind  and  amount  of  bedding  used. 
Farm  manure  is  of  two  kinds:  stable  manure  and  barn- 
yard manure.  Manure  which  is  collected  or  accumu- 
lated in  stables  and  which  contains  all  the  excrements 
is  called  stable  manure.  This  manure  is  protected 
from  the  rain  and  the  sun,  and  is  free  from  losses  of 
fertilizer  ingredients.  Sufficient  bedding  is  supplied 
to  absorb  all  the  liquid  portion  of  such  a  manure. 
Manure  which  is  allowed  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  rain  and  the  sun  is  called  barnyard  manure.  This 
manure  collects  around  barnyards  and  may  consist  of 
pure  excrements,  or  excrements  and  bedding  in  vary- 
ing proportions. 

Conditions  Afecting  the  Value  of  Farm  Manure. — 
The  method  of  handling  and  preserving  manure,  the 
kind  and  amount  of  bedding  used,  the  kind  of  animals 
and  their  age,  and  the  kind  of  food  furnished  the 
animal  all  affect  the  value  of  farm  manure. 

58 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZING   MATERIALS. 


59 


Stable  manure  is  better  than  barnyard  manure  be- 
cause It  contains  all  the  solid  and  liquid  portions.  All 
manure  should  be  kept  under  a  shed  or  other  suitable 
cover  to  protect  it  from  the  rain  and  the  sun  and  suffi- 
cient bedding  should  be  employed  to  absorb  all  the 
liquid  portion.  The  urine  contains  a  great  deal  of  the 
nitrogen,  which,  if  not  absorbed,  is  lost;  so  that  when 
this  portion  is  allowed  to  go  to  waste,  the  value  of  the 
manure  is  greatly  diminished.     The  manure  of  young 


MANURE  IMPROPERLY    KEPT. 


animals  is  not  as  rich  as  that  from  mature  animals. 
The  manure  from  sheep  and  poultry  is  richer  than  the 
manure  from  horses,  cows  and  swine.  Animals  fed 
highly  nitrogenous  feeds,  such  as  cotton-seed  meal  and 
linseed  meal,  produce  a  more  valuable  manure  than 
animals  fed  coarser  feeds. 

Ejects  of  Manure. — Farm  manure  improves  the 
texture  and  condition  of  the  soil  and  makes  the  plant 
food  that  is  stored  in  the  soil  available.  When  ma- 
nure is  put  upon  the  land  it  decomposes  rapidly  on  ac- 
count of  its  already  partially  decayed  condition;  fer- 


6o 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


mentation  sets  In  and  adds  are  formed  which  act  upon 
the  unavailable  plant  food  and  renders  It  available. 
During  the  process  of  decay  humus  Is  formed  which 
has  a  tendency  of  making  heavy  soils  (like  clay  soils) 
loose,  and  light  sandy  soils  more  binding.  It  Increases 
soil  warmth  and  renders  the  moisture  conditions  of 
the  soil  more  satisfactory. 

Lasting  Qualities  of  Farm  Manure. — Manure  Is 
one  of  the  most  efficient  fertilizers  for  the  farmer  to 
use.  It  has  wonderful  lasting  qualities;  one  good 
application  will  last  for  several  years.     The  Rotham- 


A   MANURE    SPREADER. 


stead  Experiment  Station  of  England  has  made  valu- 
able experiments  with  manure  as  a  fertilizer  on  barley 
to  show  Its  almost  permanent  effect.  The  experiment 
Is  as  follows:  The  first  plot  received  an  application 
of  14  tons  of  farm  manure  per  acre  for  20  years 
(1852-71),  and  since  that  time  has  been  left  unma- 
nured.  Another  plot  has  been  left  unmanured  during 
the  entire  period  since  1852.  The  yield  on  the  first 
plot  for  20  years  after  the  application  of  manure  was 
discontinued,  was  30  bushels  per  acre,  while  the  unma- 
nured plot  where  nothing  was  applied  gave  an  average 
yield  of  13  bushels  per  acre. 

Marl. — This  material  Is  an  earth.     It  Is  sometimes 


MANURES   AND    FERTILIZING   MATERIALS.  6l 


ONE  WAY  OF  HANDLING  MANURE. 


used  to  furnish  plant  food  and  to  improve  the  physical 
condition  of  sandy  soils.  While  it  is  variable  in  com- 
position it  generally  contains  phosphoric  acid,  potash 
and  lime. 

JVood  Ashes. — In  some  sections  this  material  is 
used  for  fertilizer.  Hard  wood  ashes  are  more  valu- 
able than  soft  wood  ashes.  Wood  ashes  average 
about  30  per  cent,  lime,  5  per  cent,  potash  and  1.5  per 
cent,  phosphoric  acid.  In  the  North  it  is  sometimes 
used  on  tobacco  lands. 

Muck. — This  is  heavy  dark  earth  found  in  swampy 
places.  It  is  rich  in  organic  matter  and  can  be  used 
on  sandy  soils. 

Gypsum. — This  substance  is  sold  as  land  plaster  and 
is  used  for  its  lime  content. 

Composts. — A  compost  is  usually  made  up  of  lay- 
ers of  manure  and  vegetable  matter.  Sometimes  lime, 
acid  phosphate,  cotton  seed,  and  similar  fertilizing  ma- 
terials are  added  to  it.  A  compost  can  be  made  in  the 
following  manner:  First  select  a  shady  place  and  pro- 


62       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

vide  a  good  drainage.  Then  make  a  foundation  with 
a  layer  of  earth.  On  top  of  this  place  a  layer  of 
leaves  and  manure,  then  a  layer  of  earth,  another  layer 
of  leaves  and  manure,  a  layer  of  earth,  etc.  The  top 
of  the  compost  should  be  covered  with  earth  and 
shaped  to  shed  water.  Keep  the  compost  pile  moist 
so  as  not  to  lose  nitrogen  which  will  escape  as  am- 
monia. The  manure,  leaves  and  any  other  fertilizing 
material  that  may  be  used,  will  decay  due  to  the  action 
of  bacteria.  The  same  changes  will  take  place  in  a 
compost  as  in  the  soil,  when  the  compost  is  kept  thor- 
oughly moist.  Before  applying  any  of  the  compost 
to  the  land  mix  it  well.  The  earth  is  used  in  layers  to 
absorb  the  ammonia  that  is  set  free  in  the  process  of 
decay  of  the  organic  materials.  The  amount  of  fer- 
tilizing material  obtained  from  a  compost  will  be  equal 
to  the  amount  of  fertilizing  material  added  to  it,  pro- 
vided there  is  no  loss;  but  the  availability  of  the  fer- 
tilizing material  will  be  greater. 

Exercise. — Have  the  pupils  bring  some  sand,  clay  and  farm 
manure  to  the  classroom.  Also  four  tomato  cans.  Mix  some  sand 
and  farm  manure  together  and  also  mix  some  clay  and  farm  manure. 
Punch  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  tomato  cans.  Fill  each  can  three- 
quarters  full  of  the  following:  i.  Sand.  2.  Mixed  sand  and  farm 
manure.  3.  Mixed  clay  and  farm  manure.  4.  Clay.  Pour  an  equal 
quantity  of  water  in  the  four  cans.  Which  soil  holds  the  water  the 
longest?  In  which  can  does  the  water  pass  through  the  quickest? 
How  does  the  mixture  of  farm  manure  with  the  sand  and  the  clay 
help  these  soils?  Record  the  time  it  takes  for  the  water  to  begin 
to  pass  through  each  can. 


Section  XII. — Commercial  Fertilizers. 

Commercial  fertilizers,  sometimes  called  artificial 
manures,  are  those  which  are  manufactured  and  sold 
on  our  markets  to  furnish  food  for  the  plant. 

The  Essential  Elements. — The  chief  function  of  fer- 
tilizers is  to  supply  those  elements  which  the  crops 
have  taken  away  from  the  land  and  which  are  neces- 
sary for  producing  profitable  crops:  namely,  nitrogen, 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZING   MATERIALS.  63 

phosphoric  add  and  potash.  These  three  elements 
are  called  "the  essential  elements"  for  two  reasons: 
First,  because  they  are  the  elements  which  are  removed 
in  greatest  amounts  by  the  harvesting  of  crops,  and 
secondly,  they  are  present  in  smaller  amounts  in  the 
soil  than  the  other  elements.  The  other  elements 
which  are  needed  for  the  growing  crops  are  usually 
present  in  sufficient  quantities  in  the  air  and  the  soil 
but  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  add  lime  to  the  soil. 

Nitrogenous  Fertilizers. — This  is  a  name  applied 
to  the  fertilizers  which  are  rich  in  nitrogen.  Cotton- 
seed meal,  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  fish 
scrap  and  tankage  are  the  principal  nitrogenous  fer- 
tilizers sold. 

1.  Cotton-seed  Meal.  This  is  the  by-product  from 
the  manufacture  of  cotton-seed  oil.  It  consists  of  the 
ground  kernel  or  meat  of  the  cotton  seed,  from  which 
most  of  the  hulls  are  removed  and  the  oil  extracted. 
It  has  a  bright  yellow  color  and  is  somewhat  coarser 
than  flour.  It  is  variable  in  composition,  depending 
on  the  amount  of  hulls  present  containing  from  5  to  7 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  It  is  a  good  fertilizer  for  crops 
having  a  long  growing  season  and  is  especially  adapted 
for  the  general  southern  crops. 

2.  Nitrate  of  Soda.  This  substance  is  obtained 
from  the  west  coast  of  Chili.  It  is  sometimes  called 
"  Chili  Saltpetre."  It  is  a  salt,  but  it  is  coarser  and 
o£  a  yellower  color  than  table  salt  and  contains  about 
15  per  cent,  to  16  per  cent,  nitrogen,  or  about  twice  as 
much  as  cotton-seed  meal.  In  the  North  it  is  used  a 
great  deal  for  fertilizing  cereals  (wheat,  oats,  rye  and 
barley).  It  is  also  used  to  a  great  extent  by  market 
gardeners  all  over  the  country  to  force  their  crops  for 
early  market.  It  is  soluble  in  water  and  for  this  rea- 
son it  should  be  applied  a  little  at  a  time.  It  has  the 
tendency  to  produce  quick  growth. 

3.  Sulphate  of  Ammonia.  This  is  a  by-product 
obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas.  It 
looks  much  like  table  salt  and  contains  about  20  per 


64 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


cent,  nitrogen.     For  crops  It  has  about  the  same  value 
and  effect  as  nitrate  of  soda. 

4.  Fish  Scraps.  This  is  the  dried  refuse  from  fish 
canneries  and  from  the  manufacture  of  glue.  Fish 
scrap  and  fish  make  good  fertilizers,  for  they  act 
quickly  because  of  their  rapid  decay. 

5.  Tankage.     This    is   the    refuse    from   slaughter 


CORN   GROWN  WITHOUT  FERTILIZER. 

houses  and  consists  of  meat,  bone,  etc.  (from  which 
the  fat  has  been  extracted),  and  dried  blood.  Like 
cotton-seed  meal,  it  is  suited  for  crops  having  a  long 
growing  season.  It  is  a  brown  powdery  substance  and 
possesses  a  strong  odor.  It  is  variable  in  composition 
and  generally  contains  from  6  per  cent,  to  10  per  cent, 
nitrogen. 

Fertilizing  Materials  Containing  Phosphoric  Acid. 
— The  phosphoric  acid  fertilizers  are  derived  princi- 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZING   MATERIALS. 


65 


pally  from  phosphate  rocks  and  bones.  The  phos- 
phate rocks  are  classed  as  river  rock  and  land  rock. 
The  river  rock  is  dredged  from  the  bottom  of  rivers 
and  the  land  rock  is  mined.  Phosphate  rock  is  found 
in  Tennessee,  Florida,  North  Carolina  and  South 
Carolina.  When  phosphate  rock  is  ground  it  is  called 
ground  phosphate  rock,  or  floats. 


v^^ 


^%#-', 


CORN   GROWN  WITH   FERTILIZER. 

The  phosphoric  acid  In  phosphate  rock  is  in  a  form 
that  the  plants  cannot  use  readily.  In  order  to  make 
this  phosphoric  acid  available  as  a  plant  food,  sul- 
phuric acid  is  added  to  the  ground  phosphate  rock. 
This  acid  changes  the  phosphoric  acid  into  a  form 
which  the  plant  can  readily  take  up.  When  sulphuric 
acid  is  added  to  the  ground  phosphate  rock,  the  re- 
sultant product  is  called  acid  phosphate.  The  phos- 
phoric acid  in  acid  phosphate  exists  in  three  forms: 


66      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

1.  That  which  is  immediately  available  to  plants  and 
is  soluble  in  water,  namely,  soluble  phosphoric  acid. 

2.  That  which  is  soluble  to  the  roots  of  the  plants  but 
is  insoluble  in  water,  namely,  reverted  phosphoric  acid. 

3.  That  which  is  insoluble  to  the  roots  of  plants  but 
is  soluble  in  strong  acids.  The  phosphoric  acid  in 
phosphate  rock  is  in  the  insoluble  form.  The  sum 
of  the  soluble  and  the  reverted  phosphoric  acids  is 
called  available  phosphoric  acid,  because  the  plant  can 
easily  use  it  for  food.  The  sum  of  the  available  and 
the  insoluble  phosphoric  acids  is  called  total  phos- 
phoric acid. 

Bones. — All  bones  contain  phosphoric  acid.  The 
phosphoric  acid  is  mostly  in  the  insoluble  form.  On 
this  account  the  phosphoric  acid  in  bones  is  slowly 
available  for  plant  food.  Sometimes  bones  are 
treated  with  sulphuric  acid  to  render  the  phosphoric 
acid  available.  The  product  is  then  called  dissolved 
bone. 

Potash. — Most  of  the  potash  used  for  fertilizer  is 
derived  from  mines  in  Germany.  Kainit,  muriate  of 
potash  and  sulphate  of  potash  are  the  names  of  these 
salts.  Kainit  is  the  crude  product  of  the  mines.  It 
contains  about  12  per  cent,  potash.  Muriate  of  pot- 
ash and  sulphate  of  potash  are  manufactured  from  the 
crude  salts  found  in  these  German  mines.  They  con- 
tain about  50  per  cent,  potash.  All  these  potash  salts 
are  soluble  in  water  and  great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  their  application  to  the  land. 

Exercise. — Write  in  your  note-book  the  names  of  the  fertilizers 
you  have  seen.  Describe  them.  Under  which  class  do  they  belong? 
Try  to  procure  samples  of  the  different  fertilizers  mentioned  in  this 
section.  If  they  cannot  be  obtained  in  your  town,  write  to  the  near- 
est fertilizer  factory  and  you  can  easily  get  them.  Have  the  pupils 
examine  them  and  require  the  pupils  to  become  proficient  in  naming 
them. 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZING   MATERIALS.  67 


Section  XIII. — Valuation  of  Fertilizers. ,' 

Meaning  of  the  Guarantee. — Nitrate  of  soda, 
kainit,  cotton-seed  meal,  acid  phosphate,  etc.,  are  sold 
either  unmixed  or  mixed.  When  any  two  ifertilizers 
are  mixed  they  are  called  mixed  or  manufactured  fer- 
tilizers. In  order  to  protect  the  purchasers,  most 
states  have  passed  laws  which  require  that  the  manu- 
facturer shall  state  the  amounts  of  phosphoric  acid, 
nitrogen  and  potash  which  his  fertilizers  contain. 
This  statement  is  called  the  guarantee.  The  guaran- 
tee is  printed  either  on  the  sack  or  on  tags  which  are 


WO  LBS 

CORN  FERTILIZER. 

MANUFMcrmeo  BY 

JOHN  BROWN 

MEMPHIS,  TENN 

^VMLJIBIE  PHOSPHOR/C/iCID 

n.oo  "J. 

NlTftOGEN 

1.65 

/iMMONiA 

2.00 

P&T/ISH 

2.00 

A    TAG    WITH    THE    GUARANTEE    OR    SAMPLE    OF    COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZER    TAG. 

attached  to  the  sacks.  The  weight  of  the  contents  of 
each  sack  is  required  by  many  states.  Supposing  a 
fertilizer  is  guaranteed  8  per  cent,  available  phos- 
phoric acid,  1.65  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  2  per  cent,  pot- 
ash; it  means  that  in  every  100  lbs.  of  this  fertilizer 
there  are  at  least  8  lbs.  of  available  phosphoric  acid, 
1.65  lbs.  of  nitrogen  and  2  lbs.  of  potash. 

Valuation  of  Fertilizers. — The  commercial  value  of 
a  fertilizer  depends  upon  the  market  prices  of  the  in- 
gredients nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  In 
most  of  the  states  the  chemist  charged  with  the  en- 
forcement of  fertilizer  laws,  ascertains  the  average 
market  values  of  the  materials  which  furnish  nitrogen, 


68      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  From  these  market 
prices  he  makes  out  a  schedule  of  values  to  cover  the 
average  cost  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
Suppose,  for  instance,  the  chemist  fixes  the  following  as 
the  values — Nitrogen  i6  cents  a  pound,  available  phos- 
phoric acid  5  cents  a  pound  and  potash  5  cents  a 
pound.  Then  a  fertilizer  guaranteed  10  per  cent, 
available  phosphoric  acid,  2  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  2 
per  cent,  potash,  is  worth,  $18.40  a  ton,  since, 

Ingredients,  per  ton     lbs.  _„"*ju' 

Available  phosphoric  acid .  i  o  %  of  2000  =  200  lbs.    200  x$.o5  =  $10. 00 

Nitrogen 2% of 2000=    40 lbs.     40 x    .16=      6.40 

Potash 2% of 2000=   40 lbs.     40 x    .05=     2.00 

Commercial  value  per  ton =  $18 .  40 

The  values  adopted  by  the  chemists  generally  repre- 
sent the  wholesale  cost  of  fertilizer  materials.  The 
values  are  given  so  as  to  enable  the  purchaser  to  ar- 
rive at  some  conclusion  concerning  the  commercial 
value  of  fertilizers.  These  values  do  not  take  into 
account  the  freight,  business  losses,  cost  of  manufac- 
ture, and  manufacturer's  profit.  Hence  the  selling 
prices  of  fertilizers  are  somewhat  higher  than  would 
be  estimated  from  the  chemist's  values. 

Agricultural  Value  of  Fertilizers. — The  commercial 
value  of  a  fertilizer  should  not  be  taken  as  its  agricul- 
tural value  in  all  cases.  The  commercial  value  gives 
the  cost  of  a  fertilizer,  while  the  agricultural  value 
shows  the  worth  of  a  fertilizer  for  producing  crops. 
To  determine  the  agricultural  value  of  a  fertilizer, 
the  farmer  must  experiment  in  the  field. 

Exercise. — Is  there  a  fertilizer  law  in  your  state?  If  there  is  such 
a  law  and  your  parents  haven't  any  fertilizer  at  home,  go  to  the 
store  where  fertilizers  are  sold  and  copy  in  your  note-book  the 
printed  guarantee  on  the  sacks  or  tags.  Name  some  mixed  and  un- 
mixed fertilizers  used  in  your  section.  What  is  the  commercial  val- 
uation of  a  fertilizer  guaranteed  8  per  cent,  available  phosphoric 
acid,  3  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  4.5  per  cent  potash?  Require  the 
pupils  to  work  several  problems  of  the  above  nature,  to  familiarize 
themselves  thoroughly  with  this  subject. 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZING   MATERIALS. 


69 


Section  XIV. — Mixing  Fertilizers. 

Home  Mixing. — When  a  farmer  buys  fertilizing 
materials  and  mixes  them  at  home  it  is  called  home 
mixing.  The  materials  containing  the  ingredients  ni- 
trogen, phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  are  regular  com- 
modities, and  can  be  purchased  in  most  large  towns 
and  cities.  Often  the  cost  of  a  home  mixed  fertilizer 
is  much  less  than  the  manufactured  article  furnishing 
the  same  amounts  of  fertilizer  ingredients  and  the 
farmer  can  mix  his  fertilizer  to  suit  the  needs  of  his 
crops.  In  making  home  mixtures  the  farmer  should 
find  out  just  what  ingredients  and  their  amounts  his 
crops  need  and  purchase  the  unmixed  fertilizers  ac- 
cordingly. 

Composition  of  Fertilizers. 


Available  phos- 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Name  of  Fertilizer 

phoric  acid  in 

m 

in 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

Acid  phosphate 

14.0 

Kainit 

12.0 

Muriate  of  potash 

50.0 

Sulphate  of  potash 

50.0 

Cotton-seed  meal 

2.5 

6.2 

1-5 

Nitrate  of  soda 

15-5 

Mixing  Fertilizers. — Suppose  a  farmer  wishes  to 
make  a  quickly  available  fertilizer  containing  8  per 
cent,  available  phosphoric  acid,  1.65  per  cent,  nitrogen 
and  2  per  cent,  potash.  What  materials  should  he 
purchase  and  how  much  of  each  to  make  a  ton  of  fer- 
tilizer of  the  above  composition?  In  the  above  table, 
acid  phosphate  can  be  selected  for  the  available  phos- 
phoric acid.  Nitrate  of  soda  would  be  preferable  to 
cotton-seed  meal  for  the  supply  of  nitrogen,  because 
a  quickly  available  fertilizer  is  wanted.  Kainit  or 
muriate  of  potash  can  be  chosen  for  the  potash.     In 


70       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

this  example  we  will  select  muriate  of  potash.  The 
above  table  gives  the  composition  of  acid  phosphate 
as  14  per  cent,  available  phosphoric  acid,  the  nitrate 
of  soda  as  15.5  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  the  muriate  of 
potash  as  50  per  cent,  potash.  Since  8  per  cent,  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid  (the  amount  desired  in  the  finished 
product)  is  equal  to  8  lbs.  of  available  phosphoric 
acid  to  every  100  lbs.  of  fertilizer,  in  2,000  lbs.  there 
will  be  needed  8x20  or  160  lbs.  of  available  phos- 
phoric acid.  In  the  same  way  we  find  that  we  must 
have  33  lbs.  of  nitrogen  and  40  lbs.  of  potash.  The 
following  statement  represents  this  more  clearly: 

Amount  wanted       Amount  required 
per  hundred.  per  ton. 

Available  phosphoric  acid 8        lbs.  x  20     =  160  lbs. 

Nitrogen i .  65  lbs.  x  20     =  33  lbs. 

Potash 2        lbs.  X  20     =  40  lbs. 

The  next  step  is  to  find  out  the  number  of  pounds 
of  acid  phosphate  required  to  furnish  160  lbs.  of  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid.  The  table  of  composition  states 
that  100  lbs.  of  acid  phosphate  contains  14  lbs.  of 
available  phosphoric  acid.  Then  14  :  100  as  160  :  x 
(number  of  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  required). 
Or  14X  ^=  16,000  X  ^-  1,143  lbs.  The  pounds  of 
nitrate  of  soda  and  muriate  of  potash  are  figured  in  a 
similar  way. 

14  :  ICO  =  160  :  number  of  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  required. 
15.5  :  100  =    33  :  number  of  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  required. 
50  :  100  =    40  :  number  of  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  required. 

In  other  words,  the  quantities  of  fertilizers  as  stated 
below  will  be  needed  to  make  one  ton  of  fertilizer  of 
the  desired  composition. 

1 143  lbs.  of  acid  phosphate  containing  14%  available  phosphoric  acid. 
213  lbs.  of  nitrate  of  soda  containing  15.5%  nitrogen. 
80  lbs.  of  muriate  of  potash  containing  50%  potash. 

1436  lbs.  Total. 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZING   MATERIALS.  71 

The  total  pounds  of  fertilizers  required  are  only 
1,436  lbs.  In  order  to  satisfy  the  formula  namely,  8 
per  cent,  available  phosphoric  acid,  1.65  per  cent  ni- 
trogen and  2  per  cent,  potash,  some  material  has  to 
be  added  to  make  the  total  weight  2,000  lbs.  The 
calculations  were  figured  on  a  ton  basis,  and  if  we  do 
not  add  material  to  make  2,000  lbs.  the  fertilizer  will 
contain  more  than  8  per  cent,  available  phosphoric 
acid,  1.65  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  2  per  cent,  potash. 
The  farmer  can  add  soil  or  sand  to  make  the  total 
weight  2,000  lbs.  In  this  case  2,000  —  1,436  =  564 
lbs.  the  amount  of  soil  necessary  to  add  to  make  2,000 
Ibs.^ 

Fillers. — When  the  manufacturer  of  fertilizers 
makes  a  fertilizer  of  the  above  composition,  out  of 
the  same  materials,  he  is  forced  to  add  some  make 
weight  substance  such  as  sand  or  cinders,  to  make  the 
total  weight  2,000  lbs.  This  make-weight  substance 
is  called  the  filler.  In  the  general  meaning  of  the 
term,  a  filler  is  spoken  of  as  something  added  to  a 
fertilizer  to  make  weight. 

Cost  of  the  Fertilizer. — Let  us  find  out  the  cost  of 
the  above  fertilizer  when  acid  phosphate  sells  for  $14 
per  ton,  nitrate  of  soda  for  $50  per  ton  and  muriate 
of  potash  for  $40  per  ton. 

Acid  phosphate  at  $14  per  ton  costs  $.007  per  lb. 

Nitrate  of  soda  at  $50  per  ton  costs  $.025  per  lb. 

Muriate  of  potash  at  $40  per  ton  costs  $.020  per  lb. 
Then : — 

1 143  (the  number  of  lbs.  of  acid  phosphate  required)  x  $ .  007  =  $8 .  001 

213  (the  number  of  lbs.  of  nitrate  of  soda  required)  X    .025  =    5.325 

80  (number  of  lbs.  of  muriate  of  potash  required)  x    .  020  =    i .  600 

1436  lbs.  total.  Cost  $14,926 

If  the  manufacturer's  price  for  a  fertilizer  of  this 
composition,  namely,  8  per  cent,  available  phosphoric 
acid,  1.65  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  2  per  cent,  potash,  is 
$20  per  ton,  it  would  be  a  paying  proposition  to  buy 
the  raw  materials  and  mix  them  at  home. 


72      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Exercise. —  i.  How  much  filler  would  it  be  necessary  to  add  to 
a  fertilizer  made  up  of  cotton-seed  meal,  kainit  and  acid  phosphate, 
of  the  following  composition — 8  per  cent,  available  phosphoric  acid, 
1.65  per  cent,  nitrogen  and  2  per  cent,  potash — provided  the  acid 
phosphate  contains  14.5  per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric  acid?  2.  In 
the  above  mixture  how  much  available  phosphoric  acid  and  pota.sh 
does  the  cotton-seed  meal  furnish?  3.  If  kainit  sells  for  $10  a  ton 
and  muriate  of  potash  for  $40  a  ton,  which  is  the  cheaper  source  of 
potash?  Which  is  the  more  economical  to  buy,  cotton-seed  meal 
containing  6.5  per  cent  nitrogen  at  $25  a  ton,  or  cotton-seed  meal 
carrying  6  per  cent,  nitrogen  at  $24  a  ton? 


Section  XV. — Application  of  Fertilizers. 

Why  Fertilizers  are  Added. — In  the  harvesting  of 
crops  a  great  deal  of  plant  food — namely,  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash — is  taken  away  from  the 
soil.  In  order  to  furnish  the  new  crops  with  these 
necessary  ingredients,  fertilizers  are  applied  which 
contain  them. 

Amounts  of  Fertilizer  per  Acre. — The  amount  of 
fertilizer  used  per  acre  varies  a  great  deal.  The  con- 
dition of  the  soil  and  the  nature  of  the  crop  regulate 
to  a  certain  extent  the  amount  of  fertilizer  to  use.  As 
a  general  rflle  the  truck  crops  (lettuce,  radish,  cab- 
bage, tomato,  etc.)  receive  a  great  deal  more  fertilizer 
than  the  general  crops.  Sometimes  1,000  lbs.  of  fer- 
tilizer are  applied  per  acre  for  truck  crops.  The 
quantities  of  fertilizer  applied  for  cotton,  corn,  to- 
bacco and  other  general  crops  are  200-600  lbs.  per 
acre. 

Kinds  of  Fertilizers  for  the  Crop. — Some  crops  re- 
quire different  fertilizer  ingredients  from  others.  To- 
bacco requires  more  potash  than  phosphoric  acid. 
Leguminous  crops,  such  as  cowpeas,  alfalfa,  soya  bean, 
etc.,  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  so  it  is  unnecessary 
to  apply  fertilizers  containing  nitrogen  for  these  crops. 
Wheat  requires  more  nitrogen  than  any  other  ingredi- 
ent for  its  production. 

Kinds  of  Fertilizers  for  the  Soil. — Soils  are  variable 
in  composition.     Some  soils  contain  enough  potash  for 


MANURES   AND   FERTILIZING   MATERIALS.  73 

ordinary  crops.  Soils  which  are  dark  or  black  in  color 
usually  contain  considerable  organic  matter  and  do  not 
need  much  nitrogen.  Some  soils  are  deficient  in  lime 
and  are  sour  or  acid.  To  make  a  sour  soil  sweet,  re- 
quires the  addition  of  lime. 

Effects   of  Fertilizer  Ingredients. — The   ingredient 
nitrogen  tends  to  produce  growth.     If  plants  give  a 


COWPEAS. 

I,  without  fertilizer;  2,  with  fertilizer. 

rank  growth  it  is  generally  due  to  an  excess  of  nitro- 
gen. Too  little  growth  indicates  a  lack  of  nitrogen. 
Phosphoric  acid  helps  to  form  the  grain  of  plants.  A 
deficiency  of  phosphoric  acid  results  in  light  weight 
grains,  with  such  crops  as  corn,  oats,  wheat,  barley 
and  rice.  Phosphoric  acid  also  tends  to  hasten  ma- 
turity in  plants.  Potash  has  a  tendency  to  give  firm- 
ness to  fruit  and  It  enables  the  truck  farmer  to  raise 


74       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

vegetables  and  fruits  that  will  stand  shipping,  as  pot- 
ash is  present  in  the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants. 

Fertilizers  for  the  Crop  and  the  Soil. — Every 
farmer  should  set  aside  plats  of  ground  and  run  experi- 
ments and  determine  for  himself  the  requirements  of 
his  land  for  the  crops  he  wishes  to  raise.  To  secure 
the  best  results  it  is  necessary  that  the  soil  be  kept  in 
good  physical  condition.  The  soil  should  be  kept  well 
drained  and  open;  apply  the  proper  fertilizers  at  the 
right  time;  purchase  fertilizers  as  set  forth  by  the 
guarantee,  and  buy  those  fertilizers  which  furnish  the 
greatest  amount  of  plant  food  for  the  least  money. 

Exercise. — How  much  fertilizer  do  your  folks  use?  What  kinds 
of  fertilizers  do  they  apply  and  for  what  crops?  Do  they  ever  add 
nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia,  in  the  early  spring?  For 
what  crops? 

REFERENCES    FOR   COLLATERAL   READING. 
Manures  and  Fertilizing  Materials. 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

189s — Soil  ferments  importance  in  agriculture. 

1895 — Humus  in  its  relation  to  soil  fertility. 

1896 — Potash  and  its  function  in  agriculture. 

1902 — Fertilizers  for  special  crops. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

44 — Commercial  fertilizers. 

192 — Barnyard  manure. 

222-225 — Home  mixing  of  fertilizers. 

245  — Renovation  of  wornout  soils. 

278 — Leguminous  crops  for  green  manuring. 

327 — Conservation  of  natural  resources. 

342 — Conservation  of  soil  resources. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

94 — New  York,  Geneva — Composition  and  use  of  fertilizers. 

113 — Louisiana,    123 — Texas,    133 — Indiana,    Commercial    fertili- 
zers. 

123 — Illinois — Fertility  in  Illinois  soils. 

129 — Illinois — Circular — The   use   of  commercial   fertilizers. 

140 — Kentucky — Fertilizers. 

182-183 — Ohio — The  maintenance  of  fertility. 

49 — Georgia  State  Board  of  Agriculture — Fertilizers. 
Books : 

Fertilizers — Voorhees — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Soils  and  Fertilizers — Snyder — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York 
City. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land — Roberts — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New 
York  City. 

Soils — Fletcher — Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 


-vr 


CHAPTER    IV. 

FARM    CROPS. 

Section    XVI. — Diversification    and    Rotation 
OF  Crops. 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier, 
Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute. 

One-Crop  Farming  Ruins  Farms. — One-crop  farm- 
ing has  ruined  more  farms  In  America  than  any  other 
cause.  The  evil  results  from  this  practice  are  not  con- 
fined to  any  one  locality  or  section.  Continuous  crop- 
ping, year  after  year,  with  tobacco  In  Virginia,  North 
Carolina  and  Kentucky;  with  corn  In  Indiana,  Illinois, 
and  Iowa;  with  wheat  In  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas; 
and  with  cotton  In  the  Gulf  states,  has  In  each  Instance 
had  the  same  effect,  and  that  is  soil  depletion.  The 
instances  just  given  are  the  ones  most  noticeable  be- 
cause the  crops,  with  the  partial  exception  of  corn,  are 
all  sold  off  the  farm  where  they  are  grown.  Usually 
nothing  is  put  back  on  the  land  to  make  up  for  the 
fertility  that  Is  removed.  This  is  practiced  as  long 
as  a  crop  can  be  grown  at  a  profit.  Then  the  farm  Is 
either  abandoned  or  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizers 
begun. 

Fertility  Must  Be  Restored  to  the  Soil. — Most  of 
the  cultivated  land  In  America  was  originally  extremely 
fertile,  but  at  the  present  time  run-down,  worn-out 
farms  are  altogether  too  common.  There  is  no  real 
reason  for  the  fertility  of  a  soil  to  become  exhausted. 
There  are  farms  In  Denmark  and  Italy  that  have  been 
in  cultivation   for  five  or  six  hundred  years  at  least, 

75 


76 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


that  produce  more  abundantly  now  than  they  did  a 
generation  ago.  A  mistaken  idea  is  quite  prevalent 
that  land  needs  resting,  that  is,  to  lie  idle  for  a  year 
or  two  every  five  or  six  years  that  it  is  cropped.  This 
is  not  necessary  in  order  to  keep  up  its  producing 
power.  The  best  farmers  in  this  country  are  the  ones 
that  work  their  land  to   its   fullest  capacity.     There 


SOY  BEANS.      A   SOIL-IMPROVING  CROP. 

must  be,  however,  provision  made  for  returning  to  the 
soil  part  of  the  fertility  removed  in  the  crops. 

Use  Soil-Improving  Plants. — By  diversifying  the 
crops  grown,  a  farmer  may  use  soil-improving  plants, 
such  as  peas,  soy  beans,  and  the  clovers  in  his  crop- 
ping system.  These  often  yield  a  good  profit  above 
the  expense  of  raising  and  harvesting,  and  they  also 
provide  forage  for  all  classes  of  live-stock.  If  so  de- 
sired a  quick  growing  legume  may  be  grown  for  plow- 
ing under  as  a  green  manure.     The  chief  advantages 


FARM   CROPS.  77 

from  diversification  are  discussed  under  the  subject  of 
rotation  of  crops. 

Rotation  of  Crops. — A  rotation  of  crops,  as  the 
name  implies,  is  the  growing  of  a  certain  number  of 
crops  following  each  other  in  regular  order  on  each 
field.  When  a  regular  rotation  is  practiced,  each  field 
produces  a  series  of  crops,  as  cotton,  followed  by  corn, 
winter  oats,  and  cowpeas  in  the  order  named,  and  is 
then  planted  again  to  the  first  crop  in  the  series,  which, 
in  this  case,  would  be  cotton.  All  of  the  crops  of  the 
rotation  are  grown  on  the  farm  each  year,  so  any  one 
crop  may  be  considered  as  the  beginning  of  the  series. 

A  rotation  differs  from  diversification  only  in  the 
fact  that  in  the  former  the  crops  are  grown  In  a  defi- 
nite system,  while  in  the  latter  this  regularity  may  be 
lacking. 

Rotations  are  usually  designated  by  the  length  of 
time  it  takes  to  complete  them,  as  a  four-year  rotation 
or  a  three-year  rotation.  The  word  "  course "  is 
sometimes  substituted  for  the  word  "  year,"  but  its 
use  is  not  recommended  because  its  meaning  is  not  so 
evident. 

Arrangement  of  Fields  for  a  Rotation. — It  is  highly 
important  that  there  be  approximately  the  same  num- 
ber of  acres  devoted  to  each  crop  in  the  rotation  every 
year.  This  enables  the  farmer  to  plan  his  work  to 
better  advantage,  to  keep  a  definite  number  of  live- 
stock and  to  estimate  his  income.  In  order  to  accom- 
plish this,  there  should  be  the  same  number  of  fields 
of  equal  area,  as  it  takes  years  to  complete  the  rota- 
tion. For  example,  if  it  is  a  four-year  rotation,  the 
farm  should  be  divided  into  four  fields. 

Advantages  from  a  Rotation. — The  chief  reasons 
for  practicing  a  rotation  of  crops  rather  than  hap- 
hazard planting  or  single  crop  farming  may  be  given 
as  follows : 

I.  It  distributes  the  labor  on  the  farm  more  evenly 
throughout  the  year  and  allows  the  farmer  to  plan  his 
work  more  systematically. 


78 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


2.  All  plants  do  not  require  the  same  amounts  of 
the  different  elements  of  plant  food.  Potatoes  and  to- 
bacco use  large  quantities  of  potash,  while  grain  crops 
draw  heavily  on  the  supply  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid.  As  these  elements  become  available  slowly  and 
are  likely  to  be  washed  out  of  the  soil  by  rains,  a 
series  of  crops  tends  to  utilize  them  more  completely 
without  loss. 


COTTON  GROWN  IN  ROTATION. 


3.  Some  plants  feed  deeply  in  the  soil  while  others 
feed  near  the  surface.  Oats  and  rye  are  shallow 
rooted  plants  while  the  roots  of  corn  and  alfalfa  pene- 
trate to  considerable  depths.  By  alternating  these 
crops  the  reserve  supply  of  plant  food  in  the  subsoil 
may  be  utilized.  The  openings  left  by  the  decay  of 
roots  in  the  subsoil  aid  also  in  draining  and  aerating 
the  soil. 

4.  A  cultivated  crop  every  three  or  four  years  tends 
to    keep    down    weeds.     Corn,  potatoes,  tobacco  and 


FARM    CROPS. 


79 


cotton,  properly  tended,  are  known  as  "  cleaning 
crops."  If  the  land  is  kept  continually  in  hay  or 
grain,  which  is  not  cultivated,  it  becomes  foul  with 
weeds. 

5.  By  the  use  of  legumes,  nitrogen  from  the  air  may 
be  stored  up  in  the  soil  for  the  use  of  other  crops.  It 
is  estimated  that  a  crop  of  red  clover  one  year  old  will 


COWPEAS  GROWN   WITH   FERTILIZER. 

have  twenty  to  thirty  pounds  of  nitrogen  stored  in  the 
roots  alone.  This  is  worth  from  four  to  six  dollars. 
A  crop  of  crimson  clover  seeded  in  corn  at  the  last 
working,  at  a  cost  for  seed  of  about  one  dollar  per 
acre,  will  catch  about  fifteen  dollars'  worth  of  nitrogen 
on  that  area. 

6.  It  keeps  the  ground  covered  with  crops  most  of 
the  year  and  prevents  leaching.  Bare  fields  should  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible. 


8o  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTUfitE. 

7.  It  furnishes  a  more  regular  income  during  the 
year.  In  single  crop  farming  sales  come  but  once, 
hence  single  crop  farmers  often  do  business  on  credit 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

8.  It  furnishes  a  variety  of  forage  which  is  essential 
to  live-stock  farming. 

9.  It  lessens  the  danger  from  insect  pests  and  plant 
diseases. 


FIELD   OF   GRASS   SUCCEEDING   WHEAT   WHICH   FOLLOWED   TOBACCO. 

Principles  to  be  Observed  in  Planning  a  Rotation  of 
Crops. — Each  farmer  should  select  the  rotation  for 
his  own  farm  from  the  great  number  of  combinations 
of  crops  that  may  be  grown.  It  is  impossible  to  say 
what  the  best  rotation  may  be  for  any  particular  farm 
without  a  careful  study  of  the  soil,  climatic  conditions, 
insect  pests,  plant  diseases  and  market  demands  of  the 
section  where  the  farm  is  located.  The  following 
principles  may  aid  in  planning  a  cropping  system,  but 
success  in  farming  can  never  be  attained  by  following 
a  series  of  set  rules. 

The  crops  grown  in  a  rotation  should  all  be  adapted 


FARM   CROPS.  8i 

to  the  locality  and  to  the  type  of  farming  to  be  fol- 
lowed. 

Such  crops  should  be  chosen  as  will  keep  the  ground 
occupied  as  much  of  the  time  as  possible.  There 
should  be  no  long  vacant  periods  between  the  harvest- 
ing of  one  crop  and  the  seeding  of  the  next  on  the  same 
field.  There  should  be  a  leguminous  crop,  such  as 
clover,   peas,  vetch,   etc.,   grown  every  three   or  four 


CROP  ROTATION  PLOTS  ON  A  MODEL  FARM. 


years  at  least  to  make  use  of  the  free  nitrogen  of  the 
air. 

Crop  Rotations. — The  following  are  a  few  exam- 
ples, out  of  a  great  many  that  might  be  given,  of  crop 
rotations : 

I.  A  four-year  rotation  for  general  farming. 

I  St  year.     Corn  seeded  to  wheat  In  the  fall,  with 
clover  and  timothy  sown  at  the  same  time  as 
the  wheat  or  the  following  spring. 
2nd  year.     Wheat. 
3rd   year.     Hay. 
4th   year.     Either  hay  or  pasture.  • 


82      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

In  this  rotation  a  crop  of  oats  seeded  in  the  spring 
is  often  substituted  for  the  wheat;  the  clover  and  grass 
being  seeded  at  the  same  time  as  the  oats.  Many 
farmers  are  beginning  to  sow  their  clover  and  grass 
seed  after  the  small  grain  is  harvested,  using  a  disk- 
harrow  to  prepare  the  seed  bed, 

2.  A  three-year  rotation  commonly  practiced  in  the 
tobacco  growing  districts. 

ist    year.     Tobacco. 
2nd  year.     Wheat. 

3rd  year.  Clover,  either  cut  for  hay  or  plowed 
under. 

3.  A  three-year  rotation  for  the  Cotton-belt. 
1st    year.      Cotton. 

2nd  year.      Corn     with     cowpeas     between     the 

rows. 
3rd   year.      Small   grain,   usually   oats,    followed 

with  cowpeas. 

4.  A  five-year  rotation  recommended  for  live- 
stock farms. 

1st  year.  Corn,  seeded  at  the  last  working  to 
crimson  clover. 

2nd  year.  Crimson  clover,  cut  for  hay  or 
plowed  under,  followed  with  cowpeas  to  be 
cut  for  hay  and  the  land  seeded  to  some  small 
grain. 

3rd  year.  Small  grain,  wheat,  oats  or  rye,  stub- 
ble to  be  disked  and  seeded  to  a  mixture  of 
clover  and  grass, 

4th  year.     Hay. 

5th  year.     Hay  or  pasture. 

Exercise. — Are  any  of  the  crop  rotations  cited  in  the  foregoing 
section  used  in  your  community?  Name  the  crop  rotations  followed 
at  your  home  town.  How  can  they  be  improved?  Name  the  legumi- 
nous plants  grown  in  the  neighborhood. 


FARM    CROPS. 


83 


Section  XVIL — Corn. 

By  Prof.  A.  D.  Shamel, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Present  Distribution  of  the  Corn  Crop. — The  pro- 
duction of  corn  in  the  corn-producing  countries  of  the 
world,  1902-1906,  as  given  in  the  agricultural  statistics, 
1907  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  is  as  fol- 
lows: 


Country 

1902 
Bushels 

1903 
Bushels 

1904 
Bushels 

1905 
Bushels 

1906 
Bushels 

North  America 

United  States 

Canada  (Ontario) . . 
Mexico 

2,523.648,000 
21,159,000 
78,099,000 

2,244,177,000 
30,211,000 
90,879,000 

2,467,481,000 
20,880,000 
88.131,000 

2,707,994,000 
21,582,000 
85,000,000 

2,927,416,000 
24,745,000 
70,000,000 

Total  North 
America.  .  .  . 

2,622,906,000 

2,365,267,000 

2,576,492,000 

2,814,576,000 

3,022,161,000 

South  America 

84,018,000 

866,000 

5,060,000 

148,948,000 
1,118,000 
5,289,000 

175,189,000 
1,477,000 
3,035,000 

140,708,000 
1,244,000 
4,417,000 

194,912,000 

Chile         

846,000 

Uruguay 

3,226,000 

Total  South 
America .... 

89,944>ooo 

ISS.3SS.000 

179,701,000 

146,369,000 

198,984,000 

Europe 

13,462,000 

104,546,000 

I 5. 255. 000 

5,863,000 

16,056,000 

135.751.000 

23,766,000 

8,411,000 

12,529,000 

I7.20-l.000 

18.177,000 

Hungary  (proper) . . 
Croatia-Slavonia . . . 
Bosnia-Herzegovina 

59,400,ooo|       94-045,000 
11,364,000        18.385,000 
6,464,0001         9.584.000 

162,923,000 

25,600.000 

8,936.000 

Total  Austria- 
Hungary  .... 

139,126,000 

183,994,000 

89,757,000 

139,307,000 

215,636,000 

18,100,000 
24,928,000 
71,028.000 
16,000,000 
68,447,000 
48,419,000 
18,396,000 
25,272,000 

22,836,000 
25,360,000 
88,990,000 
14,000,000 
80,272,000 
50,464.000 
19.479.000 
18.759.000 

12,758,000 
19,482,000 
90,545,000 

19,649,000 
24,030,000 

07.26i;.ooo 

14,581,000 
93,007,000 

Italy 

i5,ooo,ooo|        16,000,000 
19.598,000        59,275,000 
25,920,000        33.331.000 
9,498.000        21,431,000 
21.300,000        31,880,000 

130,546,000 
70.501,000 

Russia  (European) .  .  . 

Spain 

30,000,000 

Total  Europe. . 

429,716,000 

504,154,000 

303.858,000      442,168.000 

618,057,000 

Africa 

36,899.000 

36,118,000 

38.862,0001       37,655,000 

37,700.000 

7.846,000 

5,614,000 

10,519,000 

8,880,000 

9.261,000 

Grand  Total... 

3,187,311.000 

3,066,508,000 

3,109,432,000 

3,449,648,000 

3,886,163,000 

Discussion  of  Corn  Production. — This  table  shows 
that  the  great  bulk  of  the  corn  crop  of  the  world  is 
produced  in  North  America,  particularly  the  United 
States.     Europe  is  second  so  far  as  amount  of  pro- 


84 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


duction  is  concerned,  while  the  amount  of  corn  pro- 
duced by  all  the  other  countries  of  the  world  is 
comparatively  small.  Roumania  and  the  Argentine 
Republic  are  two  corn-growing  countries  where  the  in- 
crease in  the  production  of  corn  has  been  remarkable 
during  the  past  decade.  The  great  undeveloped  areas 
in  Argentine,  suitable  for  corn  culture,  make  it  possible 


GERMINATING  BOX  FOR  CORN. 


that  this  country  may  soon  become  one  of  the  leading 
corn-producing  countries  in  the  world.  As  a  result  of 
extensive  experiments  by  the  English  Government  in 
South  Africa,  in  the  culture  of , corn  in  the  Transvaal, 
Rhodesia,  Cape  Colony,  and  other  colonies,  it  is  pre- 
dicted that  this  region  may  become  an  extensive  corn 
producing  area.  In  the  United  States  nearly  all  of 
the  land  suitable  for  corn  culture  has  been  occupied, 
so  that  it  is  improbable  that  there  will  be  any  great 
increase  in  production  in  this  country  due  to  increase 


FARM   CROPS. 


8S 


of  the  area  now  producing  corn.  A  marked  increase 
in  total  production  in  the  United  States  is  being  ef- 
fected, however,  by  the  use  of  higher  yielding  varieties 
of  corn  by  corn  growers. 

The  Production  hi  the  Corn  Belt. — The  production 
of  corn  in  the  different  states  in  the  United  States  com- 
monly known  as  the  Corn  Belt  of  the  United  States, 
and  mostly  lying  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  is  shown  in 
the  following  interesting  table.  The  figures  show  the 
average  acres  cultivated  in  the  respective  states,  and 
the  average  yields  per  acre  for  ten  years,  viz.,  1898  to 
1907,  inclusive.  The  total  yields  can  easily  be  de- 
termined from  these  figures. 

ACREAGE  AND  YIELD  PER  ACRE  OF  LEADING  CORN- 
GROWING  STATES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES— 1898  TO 
1907,  INCLUSIVE. 


State 


Acreage 

Bushels  per  acre 

8,652,208 

3254 

8,593-229 

34-37 

7,664,271 

22.11 

7.495-991 

22.49 

6,493-259 

28.48 

5,672,266 

19.28 

4,308,329 

35-07 

3,043,702 

35-12 

3-097,349 

22.93 

2,326,209 

18.90 

2,220,778 

15-47 

1,759,307 

23-57 

1,380,000 

33-54 

1,305,000 

20.31 

1,331-543 

29-54 

1,298,973 

31-91 

Iowa 

Illinois .... 
Nebraska . . 
Kansas . . . . 
Missouri . . 

Texas 

Indiana. .  . 

Ohio 

Tennessee . 
Arkansas . . 
Mississippi 
Oklahoma . 
Wisconsin . 
Colorado . . 
Minnesota . 
Michigan . . 


From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  great  corn- 
producing  states  in  the  United  States  are  Iowa,  Illi- 
nois, Nebraska,  Kansas,  Missouri,  Texas,  Indiana 
and  Ohio. 

The  production  of  corn  in  the  United  States  has  in- 
creased enormously  in  the  past  quarter  of  a  century, 


86 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


A    GOOD   FIELD   OF   CORN. 


as  is  shown  in  the  following  table,  showing  the  com- 
parative increase  in  production  of  corn  and  in  the 
population  of  the  United  States. 


POPULATION  AND  PRODUCTION  OF  CORN  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES— 1850  TO  1900. 


Year 

Population 

Total  Production  of  Corn  in 
Bushels  for  United  States 

Bushels  per 
Capita 

1850 
i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

23,191,876 
31,443,321 
38,558,471 

50.155-783 
62,622,190 

75.997,873 

592,071,104 

838,792,742 

760,944,549 

I.754.591.676 

2,122,327,547 

2,666,440,279 

25-5 
26.6 
19.7 

34-9 
33-8 
350 

FARM    CROPS. 


87 


Classification. — Zea  Mays,  commonly  known  as  In- 
dian corn,  is  divided  into  six  species-groups  by  Dr. 
E.  S.  Sturtevant,*  as  follows: 

I.  Zea  Indentata. — 7  he  Dent  Corns.  The  hard 
flinty  part  of  the  kernel  called  corneous  endosperm  is 
at  the  sides  of  the  kernel  in  dent  corn.  The  soft  white 
mealy  part  of  the  kernel  called  starchy  endosperm  is 
contained  in  the  kernel  between  the  hard  flinty  por- 
tions, and  reaches  from  the  tip  to  the  top  of  the  ker- 
nels. In  the  process  of  drying  out  or  maturing  of  the 
kernels,  the  summit  or  top  of  the  kernel  is  drawn  in, 
due  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  starchy  endosperm,  and  in 
this  manner  the  tops  of  the  kernels  become  indented 
in  various  ways  and  shapes.  The  kernels  are  usually 
long,  angular,  and  generally  fit  closely  together  on  the 
cob.  The  ears  are  large,  bear  a  comparatively  large 
number  of  rows  of  kernels,  and  a  large  number  of  ker- 
nels in  the  row.  The  heart  or  germ  surrounded  by 
fatty  food  substances  is  comparatively  large,  indicat- 
ing rich  ieeding  value  and  early  vigorous  growth  of 
the  sprouting  kernels  when  planted  in  the  soil  or  other- 

*  Dr.  Sturtevant,  the  celebrated  authority  in  the  classification  of 
Zea  Mays,  published  an  interesting  bulletin  on  the  subject,  No.  57, 
of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


TYPES   OF   CORN    KERNELS. 


:j*oflfl(HI0|8f(l|8)?0eil(lC!18M(!«flag0S!!(!Clie858flC8fi«™ 


FARM   CROPS.  89 

wise.  The  dents  are  the  principal  corns  grown  In  the 
United  States  for  food  purposes,  manufacture  of  al- 
cohol and  glucose,  and  various  valuable  by-products, 
and  are  the  corns  of  most  Importance  grown  In  for- 
eign corn-growing  countries. 

2.  Zea  Amylacea. — The  Soft  Corns.  This  species- 
group  Is  distinguished  by  the  absence  of  the  hard 
flinty  corneous  endosperm,  and  through  the  uniform 
shrinkage  of  the  soft  starchy  endosperm  there  Is  little 
or  no  Indentation  of  the  kernels.  The  soft  corns  are 
grown  principally  In  Central  and  South  America  and 
other  countries  of  southern  latitude. 

3.  Zea  Indurota. — The  Flint  Corns.  In  the  flint 
corns  the  hard  flinty  corneous  endosperm  of  the  ker- 
nels enclose  the  soft  starchy  endosperm.  There  Is 
comparatively  little  soft  starchy  endosperm,  so  that 
the  kernels  are  smooth,  hard  and  have  a  flinty  appear- 
ance as  a  whole,  hence  the  name  flint  corn.  There  are 
generally  from  eight  to  twelve  rows  of  kernels  on  the 
cob,  the  kernels  being  shallow,  and  the  plants  are  usu- 
ally early  In  maturing.  The  flint  corns  have  been 
grown  In  northern  regions,  as  New  England,  Canada 
and  similar  regions  having  short  growing  seasons,  but 
are  being  rapidly  displaced  in  these  regions  by  the 
heavier  yielding  and  richer  dent  corns. 

4.  Zea  Saccharata. — The  Sweet  Corns.  The  ker- 
nels of  the  sweet  corns  are  translucent,  and  very  wrin- 
kled and  shriveled  In  appearance  when  dry.  It  Is 
principally  grown  for  roasting  ears  for  table  use  In  the 
northern  sections  of  the  United  States,  and  for  canning 
purposes.  The  sweet  corns  are  very  high  In  sugar 
content,  and  the  texture  of  the  kernels  In  the  milk  stage 
Is  very  tender.  The  sweet  corns  are  probably  of 
American  origin,  having  been  discovered  by  the  set- 
tlers in  the  colonies,  In  cultivation  by  the  Indians  in 
what  is  now  Massachusetts  and  other  regions. 

5.  Zea  Everata. — ^The  Pop  Corns.  The  pop  corn 
kernels  have  a  large  proportion  of  the  corneous  endo- 
sperm, and  when  dried  and  heated  under  proper  con- 


go       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


TYPES   OF   COBS. 

At  left,  ear  has  too  large  cob  and  kernels  are  too  shallow;  at  right,  well-formed  ear 
with  medium  size  cob,  kernels  are  deep  and  wedge-shape;  at  top,  kernels  not  of  shape 
to  fill  well  space  between  grain  rows;  at  bottom,  cob  too  small  and  kernels  too  shallow 
and  round. 

ditions  turn  inside  out,  probably  through  the  explo- 
sion of  the  moisture  retained  in  the  kernels.  The 
ears,  kernels,  and  plants  are  usually  of  small  size,  and 
are  cultivated  in  the  United  States  for  popping  pur- 
poses only,  but  in  some  countries,  as  Austria,  these 
corns  are  grown  for  the  main  crop  for  animal  food 
as  well  as  for  human  use.  The  plants  and  seeds  are 
hardy,  being  resistant  to  unfavorable  conditions  such 
as  dry  weather  and  low  temperatures. 

6.  Zea  Tunicata. — The  Pod  Corns.  The  kernels 
of  this  species-group  are  enclosed  in  pods  or  husks, 
and  the  ears  as  a  whole  are  frequently  enclosed  in  gen- 
eral husks  as  is  the  case  with  the  ears  of  the  other 
species-groups.  In  the  extensive  cultivation  of  dent 
and  sweet  corns,  ears  of  pod  corn  frequently  or  oc- 
casionally appear,  which  come  fairly  true  to  seed  when 


FARM    CROPS. 


91 


planted.  The  kernels  are  usually  small,  hard  and 
flinty,  and  the  ears  and  kernels  vary  greatly  in  their 
physical  characteristics.  The  pod  corn  is  not  a  corn 
of  commerce  but  is  grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  south- 
ern countries  where  it  is  claimed  to  be  immune  or  re- 
sistant to  the  attack  of  certain  insects,  such  as  the 
corn  weevils.  It  is  claimed  that  the  husks  fitting 
closely  about  the  individual  kernels  protect  the  kernels. 
Description  of  the  Corn  Plant. — The  staminate 
flowers  (the  tassel)  and  the  pistillate  flowers  (the  cob 
and  silks,  commonly  called  the  shoot)  are  borne  on 
the  same  plant,  but  at  different  places.  The  tassel  Is 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  panicle,  this  terminal  inflor- 
escence, or  collection  of  flowers,  being  called  the  tas- 
sel, rhe  pistillate  flowers  are  borne  on  a  hardened 
spike  or  cob,  springing  from  a  node  on  the  stem  or 
stalk.  In  the  tassel  there  are  two  single  flowers  in 
each  spikelet,  and  each  flower  bears  three  stamens, 
which  are  borne  upon  slender  thread-like  filaments. 
The  filaments  lengthen  during  the  development  of  the 
flower,  and  push  out  the  pollen-bearing  anthers.  The 
anthers  are  two-celled  and  at  maturity  split  just  above 
and  along  one  side,  allowing  the  pollen  grains  to  fall 


TWO-YEAR-OLD  CORN    SHOWING   PROTECTION   FROM   WEEVILS   DUE   TO  A 
TIGHT-FITTING   HUSK. 


pa      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

out  or  be  shaken  out  by  the  wind,  by  which  means  they 
are  frequently  wafted  long  distances.  It  has  been  es- 
timated by  the  writer  that  each  anther  produces  about 
2,500  pollen  grains,  and  that  a  single  tassel  bears 
about  10,000  anthers,  so  that  the  plant  produces  about 
25,000,000  pollen  grains.  The  pistillate  flowers  are 
protected  by  husks  or  modified  leaves,  which  open  at 
the  proper  time  to  permit  the  projection  of  the  stig- 
matic  portion  of  the  silk  or  pistil.  This  stigma,  in  a 
receptive  condition,  is  moist  with  a  sticky  substance,  and 
covered  with  fine  hairs.     Pollen  grains  falling  on  the 


EAR  OF  CORN   BORNE  BY   ISOLATED   STALK,   SHOWING  LACK  OF   SELF 
FERTILIZATION. 

receptive  stigma  are  caught  by  these  hairs,  and  under 
the  influence  of  the  moisture  of  the  stigma  and  heat 
of  the  atmosphere  germinate. 

The  germinating  pollen  grain  sends  a  pollen  tube 
through  the  hollow  silk  to  the  top  of  the  ovule,  where 
the  nuclei  of  the  pollen  grain  unites  with  the  egg  cell 
within  the  ovule,  and  fertilization  takes  place.  The 
fertilized  egg  cell  begins  growth,  and  together  with  the 
surrounding  ovary  develops  into  the  kernel  of  corn. 
As  a  rule  there  are  from  500  to  1,200  ovaries  borne 
by  each  cob,  with  a  silk  for  each  ovary. 

So  it  can  be  seen  from  the  above  description  that 
every  silk  must  be  pollinated  by  at  least  one  pollen 
grain   in   order   for  the   production   of  mature   corn 


FARM   CROPS. 


93 


which  we  use  for  so 
many  purposes.  The 
corn  plant  in  the  United 
States  is  an  annual,  the 
weight  of  seed  about 
equals  the  weight  of  the 
stalk  with  leaves  and 
husks  attached,  and  it 
requires  from  50  to 
140  days  of  growth  to 
mature  the  plant. 

Exercise. — What  is  the 
average  rainfall  and  tem- 
perature for  the  growing 
season  in  your  section? 
What  is  the  average  yield 
of  corn  in  your  locality? 
How  does  this  yield  com- 
pare with  the  average  for  the 
United  States?  Bring  some 
corns  of  different  types  to 
the  classroom  and  make  a 
study  of  the  kernels  as  de- 
scribed in  this  article.  Ex- 
amine the  corneous  endo- 
sperm and  starchy  endo- 
sperm of  kernels  of  different 
types. 

Section  XVIIT. — 
Methods  of  Cul- 
ture OF  Corn. 

Germination  of  the 
Seed. — The  conditions 
for  germination  are: 
(i)  vitality,  (2)  heat, 
(3)  moisture,  (4) 
oxygen  or  air.  With- 
out vitality  seed  corn 
will  not  grow.  It  is  in- 
jured by  cold  weather, 
extreme    wet    weather, 


BARREN  AND  PRODUCTIVE  CORN  STALKS. 


94       FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


* 

1 

i 

^^^rM)^HHMII» 

WELL-SHAPED    KERNELS. 


extreme  heat  and  other  causes.  If  the  kernel  ma- 
tures properly  on  the  stalk,  is  dried  out  carefully  by 
a  free  circulation  of  dry  air  after  husking,  the  vital- 
ity is  conserved  in  good  condition  under  all  ordi- 
nary circumstances  of  weather.  A  certain  tempera- 
ture, usually  70  degrees  to  80  degrees  Fahrenheit,  is 
most  favorable  to  germination  of  the  seed.  Too  low 
or  too  high  temperatures  injure  the  germination  of  the 
seed.  A  certain  degree  of  moisture,  such  as  contained 
in  moist  friable  soil,  is  necessary  to  the  best  germina- 
tion. Without  moisture  germination  will  not  take 
place.  A  certain  amount  of  oxygen  is  necessary  for 
the  sprouting  seed.  The  process  of  germination  re- 
quires the  oxygen  to  make  available  the  plant  food 
stored  up  in  the  seed.  Without  all  of  these  conditions 
germination  will  not  take  place,  and  it  is  the  business 
of  the  corn  grower  to  supply  these  conditions  for  the 


FARM   CROPS. 


95 


sprouting  of  the  seed,  in  the  most  favorable  amounts 
for  perfect  germination.  The  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed  is  the  means  the  farmer  uses  to  modify  and  supply 
these  conditions  for  the  planted  seed. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. — As  stated  above,  the 
object  of  the  preparation  of  the  soil  is  to  provide 
the  most  favorable  conditions  for  the  sprouting  of  the 
seed  and  further  the  growth  of  the  living  plant.  The 
kind  of  plowing,  the  depth  of  plowing,  the  time  of 
plowing,  etc.,  must  necessarily  depend  largely  upon  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  the  climate,  the  lay  of  the  land,  and 
numerous  other  factors.  However,  this  general  prin- 
ciple can  be  kept  in  mind  under  all  conditions,  viz.,  the 
corn  plants  need  a  deeply  prepared  seed  bed  soil,  in 
fine  tilth,  so  as  to  supply  and  conserve  moisture,  admit 
heat  and  air,  and  provide  abundance  of  space  for  the 
innumerable  small  spreading  roots  and  root  hairs. 
The  functions  of  the  roots  are  to  hold  the  plants  in 
place,  support  them  in  an  upright  position,  and  supply 
plant  food  which  is  carried  to  the  leaves,  elaborated, 
by  the  chemical  process  of  the  fluids  in  the  cells  of 
the  plant  in  the  presence  of  air  and  sunshine,  into  ma- 
terials that  build  up  the  various  parts  of  the  plant 


ROOT   DISTRIBUTION   AT   SILKING  TIME. 


96 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


during  the  growing  period.  During  this  period  there 
is  an  immense  quantity  of  water  transpired  by  the 
plant,  given  off  through  the  leaves,  and  it  is  necessary 
to  till  the  soil  so  as  to  supply  an  abundance  of  soil 
water  for  the  use  of  the  plants.  Without  the  neces- 
sary water,  the  plants  become  stunted,  wilt  and  die. 
Most  good  corn  soils,  when  properly  handled  and  ro- 
tated, can  be  plowed  from  6  to  lo  inches  deep.  The 
plowed  land  should  be  disked  and  harrowed  to  bring 
it  to  a  fine  mellow  condition  before  the  seed  is  planted. 
Planting. — There  are  two  general  methods  of 
planting  corn,  in  drills  and  hills.  When  drilled  the 
seeds  are  usually  dropped  singly  in  rows  from  3  to  4 


TWO  METHODS  OF   PLANTING  CORN. 


feet  apart,  from  10  to  16  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
When  planted  in  hills,  i.  e.,  "  checked,"  from  two  to 
four  kernels  are  planted  in  rows  from  3  to  4  feet  apart, 
the  hills  being  planted  from  3  to  4  feet  apart. 

The  advantage  of  checking  lies  in  the  fact  that  this 
method  permits  of  cross  cultivation,  which  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  cultivation  of  the  crop.  Wher- 
ever possible  the  writer  believes  in  checking  seed  corn. 

Cultivation. — The  objects  of  cultivation  are:  (i) 
to  conserve  soil  moisture,  (2)  remove  weeds,  (3)  pre- 
serve a  fine  tilth,  (4)  aerate  the  soil.  Extensive  ex- 
periments have  shown  that,  under  normal  conditions, 
it  is  best  to  use  small  shovel  cultivators,  or  "  surface  " 
cultivators,   and  go  over  the  field  from  six  to  eight 


TEN    EARS    OF   BOONE    COUNTY   WHITE   CORN   SHOWING  VARIABILITY    IN 
TYPE   RESULTING  FROM   FAILURE  TO   SELECT   SEED. 


TEN    EARS   OF    SAME  VARIETY   SHOWING   RESULTS  OF   THIRTY-TWO   YEARS 
OF   SEED  SELECTION. 


98  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

times  at  least  during  the  growing  season.  On  level 
fields  two  row  cultivators  are  preferable.  In  all 
events  the  soil  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds  at  all 
times,  and  a  loose  mellow  mulch  maintained  on  the 
surface.  After  the  corn  reaches  waist  high,  or  too 
high  for  the  one  or  two  row  cultivators,  It  pays  espe- 
cially In  dry  seasons  to  hitch  one  horse  on  to  a  small 
harrow  or  other  shallow-toothed  Instrument  and  keep 
the  surface  soil  frequently  stirred. 

Harvesting. — The  method  of  harvesting  depends 
on  the  purpose  for  which  the  corn  Is  grown.  In  gen- 
eral the  writer  believes  that  If  possible  all  of  the  crop 
on  the  ordinary  farm  should  be  fed  to  live-stock,  after 
which  the  manure  should  be  carefully  composted  and 
returned  to  the  land.  Silos  are  Ideal  means  of  pre- 
paring the  corn  plant  for  food.  Shredders  and  other 
means  of  tearing  up  the  stalks  and  husks  are  desira- 
ble Implements  wherever  practicable.  Feeding  the 
fodder  from  the  shock  Is  wasteful,  but  better  than  not 
feeding  at  all.  If  fed  In  this  manner,  hogs  ought  to 
follow  cattle  In  order  to  save  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  waste.  When  the  ears  are  husked  or  jerked  from 
the  stalk  they  should  be  stored  In  open  cribs,  covered 
well,  and  protected  from  mice,  rats,  weevils  and  other 
agents  of  destruction  and  waste. 

Varieties. — Some  of  the  leading  varieties  of  corn 
may  be  classified  according  to  corn  regions  as  fol- 
lows:* 

*  A  history  of  the  production  of  some  of  these  varieties  was  pub- 
lished by  the  writer  some  years  ago  in  a  Bulletin  from  the  Illinois 
Exp.  Station,  Urbana,  111.,  entitled,  "  Sorne  Standard  Seed  Corn  Va- 
rieties." 

Dent  Corns : 

Northern  Varieties : 

Brewers'  Yellow  Dent,  Minnesota  No.  13. 
Central  Varieties : 

Reids'  Yellow  Dent,  Leaming,  Boone  County  White,  Johns- 
ton  County  White,   Pride  of  the  North,   Silver  Mine, 
Bloody  Butcher  and  Strawberry. 
Southern  Varieties : 

Whelchel  White  Dent,  West's  White  Dent,  Hickory  King, 


FARM   CROPS.  99 

Selection  of  Seed. — If  a  corn  grower  Is  not  satisfied 
with  his  corn,  If  It  Is  low  yielding  or  undesirable  for 
other  reasons,  It  should  be  his  business  to  Investigate 
the  possibility  of  securing  other  varieties  of  higher 
yielding  power,  and  of  more  profitable  production. 
This  can  be  done  In  several  ways:  (i)  study  yield 
tests  In  Experiment  Station  Reports  of  Home  State 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station;  (2)  through  the 
Agricultural  Press;  (3)  personal  visits  to  planters 
using  other  varieties;  and  (4)  by  correspondence  with 
corn  breeders'  organizations. 

After  securing  a  satisfactory  variety  It  should  be 
Improved  by  Intelligent  and  continuous  selection  of 
seed.  In  order  to  make  the  best  selection  It  Is  desir- 
able to  study  the  plants  as  early  as  possible,  observe 
them  frequently  all  season,  and  save  seed  ears  from 
the  type  of  plant  bearing  the  kind  of  ears  desired. 
When  the  crop  Is  husked  a  sharp  lookout  should  be 
kept  for  fine  ears,  and  the  desirable  ones  for  seed 
thrown  in  a  separate  receptacle  for  future  more  care- 
ful inspection.  The  best  ears  are  frequently  found 
unexpectedly  developed  in  nature's  laboratory  by 
means  we  do  not  fully  understand. 

Corn  Judging.  The  first  corn  judging  school,  so 
far  as  the  writer  knows,  was  held  at  the  University 
of  Illinois  in  the  fall  of  1898.  A  short  corn  judging 
course  of  two  weeks  for  farmers,  the  same  winter,  at- 

Boone  County  White,  Marlborough  Prolific,  Shaw's  Im- 
proved, Calhoun  Red  Cob. 
Sweet  Corns  : 

Crosby,    Country    Gentleman,     Molakhof,    Evergreen,    and 
numerous  local  strains. 
Pop  Corns : 

White  Transparent,  Rice,  and  numerous  local  and  other  va- 
rieties. 
Flint  Corns  : 

Canada  Eight-Rowed,  Longfellow,  Wilson  Hybrid,  Yellow 
Creole,  and  numerous  local  varieties. 
Pod  Corns  and  Soft  Corns  : 

No  special  varieties  known  to  the  writer  other  than  a  new 
variety  of  pod  corn  not  named ;  widely  advertised  by 
H.  J.  Sconce,  a  corn  breeder  of  Illinois. 


lOO 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


tended  by  sixty-five  Illinois  corn  growers,  was  given 
at  the  same  place.  The  first  score  card  for  students' 
use  was  written  about  1891.  So  it  can  be  seen  that 
systematic  corn  judging  is  a  matter  of  recent  history. 
The  object  of  corn  judging  is  to  compare  seed  ears 
of  given  varieties  as  to  their  value  for  seed  purposes. 
Scales  of  points,  standards  of  perfection,  etc.,  have 
been  prepared  for  the  important  varieties.  It  is  im- 
possible to  quote  these  score  cards  here,  but  the  im- 
portant points  will  be  briefly  mentioned.  It  should 
be  kept  in  mind  that  the  score  cards,  etc.,  are  of  as- 
sistance in  the  study  of  ears  of  corn,  but  the  experi- 
enced judge  does  not,  and  the  writer  believes  cannot, 
solely  use  them  in  picking  out  seed  for  breeding  pur- 
poses.    The  important  points  are: — 

1.  Maturity.  Unless  a  corn  matures  it  is  useless 
in  the  region  where  grown.  The  ears  should  be 
sound,  firm,  dry,  and  not  show  signs  of  weathering. 

2.  Vitality.  Unless  a  corn  will  grow  it  is  useless 
for  seed  purposes.  The  germ  should  be  large,  plump, 
bright  and  show  indications  of  perfect  preservation  of 
vitality. 

3.  Yield.  Unless  a  corn  produces  a  profitable 
yield  it  is  not  worth  planting  under  normal  conditions. 
The  higher  the  yield  of  shelled  corn  the  better  the 
corn.     As  a  rule  high  yield  is  associated  with  large. 


1 

^^^u"'          '^  i 

■^  ^        BEV  ■^"'ir«  ^^ 

WELL  AND   POORLY   DEVELOPED  CORN  AT  TIPS. 


FARM   CROPS. 


lOI 


REMOVING   KERNELS  FOR  GERMINATING  TEST. 


heavy,  mature  ears,  bearing  deep  wedge-shaped  ker- 
nels, having  large  germs  and  a  large  proportion  of 
the  hard  flinty  endosperm.  The  rows  of  kernels  are 
usually  straight  in  well-bred  varieties,  the  color  pure, 
white  kernels,  white  cob,  yellow  or  other  color  of  ker- 
nels, red  cob,  although  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
In  all  events  the  heaviest  mature  dry  ears  are  usually 
the  best.  The  ears  should  conform  to  variety  char- 
acteristics. 

Seed  Corn  Testing. — Although  the  general  condi- 
tion of  the  seed  corn  can  be  judged  from  the  condition 
of  the  kernels,  it  is  wise  to  test  every  seed  ear  planted. 
This  can  be  done  as  follows:  Secure  a  box  at  least 
2  feet  X  3  feet  and  6  inches  deep.  Fill  half  full  of 
moist  sawdust.  Mark  a  white  piece  of  cloth  the  size 
of  the  box  off  into  checker-board  squares  with  a  lead 
pencil.  The  square  should  be  about  2  inches  x  2  in- 
ches. Lay  this  cloth,  marked  side  up,  on  top  of  the 
sawdust,  and  tack  to  sides  of  box.  Number  each 
square.  Take  a  sample  of  six  kernels,  from  different 
parts  of  the  ear,  from  every  ear.  Be  sure  each  ear 
is  labeled.     Lay  the  sample  kernels  from  ear  No.   i 


I02 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


in  square  No.  i,  and  so  on.  Cover  the  samples  with 
a  cloth  and  pack  the  remainder  of  the  box  full  of  wet 
sawdust.     Cover  with  boards  and  set  away  in  a  warm 


,Q"rj"'^«h 


bKt-lJ    IN    (jEkMl.NAUNL.    buX. 


safe  place.  At  the  end  of  seven  days  carefully  roll  off 
the  top  cloth.  Study  the  samples.  If  a  sample,  say 
No.  5,  has  germinated  poorly,  discard  ear  No.  5. 
Save  for  planting  only  the  ears,  the  samples  from 
which  show  healthy  vigorous  normal  sprouts.  This 
practice  will  help  insure  a  perfect  stand,  which  is  es- 
sential to  a  high  yield. 

Corn  Breeding. — The  term  corn  breeding  is  here 
used  to  mean  the  improvement  in  yielding  power  of 
corn  by  seed  selection.  The  writer  uses  the  following 
plan.  The  best  ears,  in  the  entire  crop,  are  planted 
in  a  separate  patch  of  not  less  than  one  acre.  In 
order  to  study  the  yielding  power  by  individual  ears, 


FARM   CROPS. 


103 


ten  are  selected  and  a  row  100  hills  long  planted 
from  each.  During  the  summer  the  tassels  from  all 
of  the  poor  or  barren  stalks  are  pulled  out  before  the 
pollen  falls.  In  the  fall  the  ten  rows  are  husked  and 
weighed  separately,  and  from  these  figures  the  best 
type  of  ear  determined  upon  for  future  use  and  guide 
for  selecting  of  seed  ears.  The  best  ears  of  the  patch 
are  all  saved  for  future  close  inspection  and  used  if 
needed.  This  plan  is  kept  up  under  all  circumstances. 
The  seed  is  stored  on  racks,  one  ear  deep.  .  Warm  dry 
air  is  passed  through  the  seed  room.  An  open  attic 
is  an  admirable  place.  When  dry,  the  seed  is  in  good 
condition  for  passing  the  winter. 

The  Rotation  of  Corn  with  Other  Crops. — All  ex- 
perience points  to  the  fact  that  the  soil  becomes  corn 


IMPROVEMENT   OF   CORN   BY    SELECTION. 

sick  if  this  crop  is  grown  too  long  on  the  same  land 
continuously.  Therefore  it  is  considered  to  be  wise 
to  rotate  this  crop  with  others.  The  crops  to  be  used 
for  rotation  depend  largely  on  the  region  where  the 


I04  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

crop  is  grown.  If  possible  the  rotation  should  always 
include  a  legume.  In  the  corn  belt,  corn,  oats  or 
wheat  and  clover  is  a  good  rotation.  In  the  south, 
corn,  cowpeas,  or  soy  beans  or  other  legumes  with  or 
without  a  cereal  ought  to  be  considered.  If  the  le- 
gume can  be  fed  on  the  land  so  much  the  better. 

Exercise. — State  the  popular  method  of  planting  corn  among  your 
people  and  state  why  this  method  is  used.  Bring  a  cornplant  in 
tassel  to  school  and  make  a  study  of  its  roots,  stalk,  leaves,  tassel, 
etc.  Do  all  stalks  of  corn  produce  ears?  How  many  ears  of  corn 
generally  grow  per  stalk?  If  the  rows  of  corn  are  planted  5  ft. 
apart,  the  distance  between  the  plants  is  2  ft.,  and  115  ears  shell  a 
bushel,  what  would  be  the  yield  if  every  stalk  produced  an  ear? 
Name  the  varieties  of  corn  of  your  section.  Bring  ten  ears  of  corn 
to  school  and  learn  how  to  pick  out  the  best  ear.  How  would  you 
improve  the  yield  of  corn?  State  what  corn  is  used  for  at  your 
home. 

Section  XIX. — Cotton. 

By  Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson, 

Dean  of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  La.  State  University  and  Director 

of  the  La.  Experiment  Stations. 

Importance  of  the  Crop. — Cotton  is  the  most  im- 
portant farm  crop  grown  in  the  United  States  south 
of  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  of  latitude.  No  other 
vegetable  fiber  is  used  throughout  the  world  so  exten- 
sively or  for  such  a  diversity  of  purposes.  The  south- 
ern states  produce  from  ten  to  thirteen  million  bales  of 
500  pounds  each,  which  is  about  three-fourths  of  the 
world's  supply  of  cotton,  and  the  value  approximates 
three-quarters  of  a  billion  dollars  annually.  Nearly 
two-thirds  of  the  crop  is  exported  and  is  our  greatest 
article  of  export.  The  value  of  the  cotton  and  cotton- 
seed products  exported  from  the  United  States  is 
greater  than  twice  the  value  of  the  exported  packing 
house  products.  It  is  greater  than  twice  the  value 
of  all  the  grain  and  grain  products  exported.  It  is 
more  than  one-third  of  all  the  agricultural  exports  of 
the  United  States  including  forest  products. 

History. — It  is  not  known  when  and  where  cotton 
was  first  used  by  mankind.     Probably  it  is  native  to 


FARM   CROPS. 


105 


the  tropics  of  both  hemispheres.  Very  early  writers 
refer  to  it  as  tree  wool.  It  is  probable  that  it  was 
carried  from  Asia  to  Egypt,  and  from  there  to  Eu- 
rope in  early  times.  Its  rapid  growth  in  favor  to  the 
position  of  the  most  important  fiber  crop  of  the  world 
covers  a  period  of  but  little  more  than  a  century.  The 
invention  of  the  cotton-gin  in  1793,  for  separating  the 


A   FIELD  OF  COTTON. 


lint  from  the  seed,  caused  a  sudden  expansion  of  the 
cotton-growing  industry. 

Region  of  Cultivation. — Cotton  can  be  grown  more 
or  less  successfully  in  any  latitude  where  the  period  of 
exemption  from  frost  is  five  and  half  to  six  months, 
and  where  favorable  soil  and  moisture  conditions  are 
to  be  had.  It  thrives  best  in  well  drained  mixed  soils. 
The  territory  of  the  United  States  south  of  the  thirty- 
seventh  parallel  and  east  of  El  Paso,  Texas,  offers  the 


io6 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


SEA   ISLAND  COTTON. 

seed  being  planted  for  each 
more  or  less  woody.  The 
with  the  varieties.  Some 
stalk  with  short  laterals, 
like  Jackson  limbless,  and 
others  have  lateral 
branches  almost  as  long 
as  the  central:  stalk.  The 
distance  between  the  joints 
Is  regarded  as  important 
in  the  production  of  early 
cotton.  The  fruit  is  borne 
at  the  joints  of  the  side 
limbs,  and  in  the  territory 
where  early  fruiting  is  de- 
sired, either  because  of 
short  summer  or  the  rav- 
ages of  the  boll  weevil, 
improvement  to  this  end 
is  made  by  selecting  seed 
from    stalks    that    branch 


most  favorable  conditions 
for  extensive  cotton  pro- 
duction. 

Botanical  Characters 
and  Habit  of  Growth. — 
The  cotton  plant  belongs 
to  the  Mallow  family, 
and  the  generic  name, 
Gossipium,  means  silky, 
referring  to  the  character 
of  the  lint.  All  culti- 
vated species  are  peren- 
nial in  climates  free  from 
freezing  temperatures, 
and  become  more  or  less 
tree-like.  In  sub-tropical 
countries  they  are  re- 
garded as  annuals,  the 
crop.  The  stalk  is  always 
habit  of  branching  varies 
develop   a   strong   central 


AMERICAN  UPLAND  COTTON. 


FARM   CROPS.  107 

near  the  ground,  have  the  joints  close  together,  both 
in  main  stem  and  side  branches,  and  with  fruit 
branches  at  the  greatest  number  of  joints.  As  the 
seed  of  a  single  stalk  reproduces  fairly  true  to  parent 
stock,  the  seed  of  an  improved  strain  can  be  multiplied 
rather  rapidly.  The  flower  bud  with  adherent  leaf 
bracts  is  called  a  "  square."  The  flowers  are  white 
or  cream-colored  when  they  first  open,  but  gradually 
turn  pink  and  close  at  night.  The  second  day  they  are 
deep  pink,  almost  red,  and  at  the  close  of  the  second 
day  they  wither  and  in  a  day  or  two  drop  off.  Sea 
Island  cotton  has  yellow  blooms. 

Rains  falling  in  the  early  part  of  the  day  when  cot- 
ton is  blooming  rapidly  cause  considerable  damage  by 
preventing  fertilization  of  the  flower,  preventing  the 
formation  of  a  boll. 

Selecting!  and  Breeding. — The  stigma  of  the  flower 
stands  above  the  stamens,  and  cross  breeding  may  be 
accomplished  without  great  difficulty.  About  three 
weeks  are  required  for  development  from  a  small 
flower  bud  to  a  splendid  bloom.  It  will  be  from 
forty  to  fifty  days  from  the  time  the  bloom  opens  un- 
til the  boll  is  mature.  A  period  of  seventy  to  ninety 
days  after  planting,  with  gradually  increasing  tem- 
perature, warm  nights  and  well-distributed  rainfall, 
produces  the  best  stalk;  and  if  this  kind  of  season  is 
followed  by  hot,  moderately  dry  weather  until  late 
in  the  season,  a  maximum  crop  will  be  produced. 

The  division  of  the  stigma  indicates  the  number  of 
cells  the  boll  will  have  at  maturity.  Five  cells  are 
generally  preferred,  not  only  on  account  of  conven- 
ience in  picking  the  mature  crop,  but  because  the  best 
returns  are  generally  secured.  The  mature  seed  with 
the  adhering  lint  in  one  cell  of  the  boll  is  called  a 
"  lock."  A  lock  generally  contains  six  to  eight  seeds. 
The  mature  bolls  burst  open  through  the  middle  of 
the  cells,  and  the  locks  are  exposed.  When  the  divi- 
sions of  the  boll  separate  widely  the  cotton  Is  most 
easily  picked,  but  is  liable  to  be  blown  to  the  ground 


.I08      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

and  damaged  by  storms.  By  selection  strains  have 
been  developed  under  the  name  of  "  stormproof  "  that 
do   not   open  widely,    but   such   strains   are   generally 


NATURAL  OPEN  COTTON   BOLL. 


rather  difficult  to  pick.  Most  of  the  early  varieties 
have  small  bolls  and  short  fiber.  From  70  to  100 
bolls  of  these  varieties  are  required  to  yield  a  pound 
of  seed  cotton.  Large  boll  varieties  are  also  being  es- 
tablished for  early  maturity,  and  of  these  55  to  70  bolls 
make  a  pound  of  seed  cotton.  Satisfactory  results 
have  not  been  secured  in  attempts  to  grow  an  early 
variety  with  long  lint. 

Select  Seed  from  Best  Plants. — The  average  farmer 
gives  little  if  any  attention  to  selecting  his  cotton  seed 


FARM    CROPS. 


109 


from  the  best  plants.  A  little  intelligent  work  in  this 
line  will  greatly  improve  the  crop,  because  he  can 
modify  almost  any  of  the  characteristics  of  the  plant 
by  selecting  seed  from  the  stalks  showing  the  desired 
characters  most  strongly  developed.  It  is  generally 
best  to  take  advantage  of  what  others  have  accom- 
plished in  these  lines  and  start  with  seed  that  are 
known  to  be  good,  and  continue  the  improvement  for 
adaptation  to  local  conditions.  The  seed  from  each 
selected  stalk  should  be  planted  in  a  row  by  itself  and 
if  it  shows  strongly  the  desired  characters  the  crop 
can  be  saved  for  a  larger  planting.  A  nursery  plot 
where  the  selections  of  fifty  or  more  stalks  can  be  per- 


COTTON  IMPROVED  BY  SELECTION  OF  SEED. 

petuated  in  this  way  each  year  will  lead  to  great  im- 
provement in  the  field  crop. 

Nature  of  Fiber. — The  fibers  or  hairs  develop  from 
the  surface  of  the  seed.  In  the  Sea  Island  cotton,  and 
in  some  seeds  of  many  upland  cottons,  the  hairs  be- 


no      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

come  separated  from  the  seed  at  maturity,  leaving  the 
surface  of  the  seed  perfectly  smooth,  except  a  little 
area  at  the  small  end.  When  we  view  a  fiber  under 
the  microscope  we  find  it  to  be  a  collapsed  tube  approxi- 
mately 1/1500  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  somewhat 
spirally  twisted.  These  characters  give  it  spinning 
qualities.  The  value  of  the  lint  depends  primarily 
upon  its  length,  fineness  and  strength.  The  Sea  Island 
fiber  is  one  and  a  half  inches  or  more  in  length  and 


SEEDS  WITH  FIBER  attached;  LONG         SEEDS   WITH   FIBER   ATTACHED; 
STAPLE  COTTON.  SHORT   STAPLE  COTTON. 

forms  a  class  by  itself.  It  sells  for  about  three  times 
as  much  as  middling  short  staple.  It  is  grown  on  the 
coast  line  and  outlying  islands  of  South  Carolina  and 
Georgia  and  cannot  be  successfuly  grown  in  the  in- 
terior. 

Long  Staple  Upland  Cotton  has  lint  from  one  and 
a  quarter  inches  to  one  and  five-eighth  inches  in  length 
and  constitutes  a  second  class.  The  Black  Rattler, 
the  Bender,  Allen's  Long  Staple,  Flora  Dora  and  Grif- 
fin are  among  the  best  varieties.  These  are  cultivated 
mostly  in  the  rich  alluvial  lands.     Allen's  Long  Staple 


FARM  CROPS.  Ill 

is  the  most  popular  for  uplands.  The  boll  weevil 
greatly  curtails  the  long  staple  crop,  as  all  long  staple 
varieties  mature  later  than  short  staple  varieties,  and 
the  boll  weevils  become  very  numerous  in  late  summer, 
destroying  all  squares  and  young  bolls. 

Short  Staple. — Fibers  of  less  length  than  given  above 
are  classed  as  "  short  staple."  The  bulk  of  the  cotton 
crop  is  of  this  kind.  Market  quotations  are  based  on 
"  middlings,"  "  short  staple  "  as  a  standard.  Coarse 
cloth  is  made  of  short  lint,  the  finer  grades  of  longer 
staple.  Where  the  boll  weevil  is  to  be  contended  with, 
the  King,  Simpkin's,  Toole's  and  Cook's  Improved  are 
among  the  best  small  boll  early  varieties.  The  Tri- 
umph and  Rowden  are  large  boll  early  varieties  suited 
to  some  soils. 

Exercise. — Give  the  names  of  the  varieties  of  cotton  of  your 
section.  What  types  are  they?  Classify  them  as  having  large  and 
small  bolls ;  large  and  small  seed  ;  as  branching  high  and  close  to  the 
ground ;  as  early  and  late  maturing.  Do  you  know  of  any  planters 
selecting  and  improving  cotton?  Secure  leaves  arid  stalks  of  as  many 
varieties  as  possible  and  make  notes  of  their  differences. 


Section  XX. — The  Culture  of  Cotton. 

Preparation  of  Soil  for  Planting. — Where  flat  cul- 
tivation is  practiced,  or  where  grain  has  been  the  pre- 
ceding crop,  the  land  is  generally  plowed  broadcast 
and  harrowed  in  preparation  for  the  planting  of  cot- 
ton. Where  cotton  follows  a  previous  crop  of  cotton 
and  cultivation  is  in  ridges,  the  preparation  generally 
consists  of  listing  two  or  four  furrows  on  the  old 
middles  and  subsequently  breaking  out  the  old  row. 
This  may  be  accomplished  with  a  double  mold  board 
plow  or  other  implement.  The  newly  formed  ridge 
is  harrowed  with  an  A  harrow.  In  most  soils  it  is 
advantageous  to  prepare  the  land  as  far  in  advance 
of  the  planting  as  practicable.  Running  a  double 
mold  board  plow  down  the  old  middle  before  listing 
gives  better  preparation  than  can  be  secured  without 


112 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


it.  Broadcast  plowing  will  generally  give  the  best 
preparation  of  the  soil.  After  harrowing,  the  ridges 
can  be  sufficiently  reformed  by  the  disk  cultivator  at 
one  passing  of  the  implement. 

Rows  vary  in  width  from  3^  feet  in  poor  lands  to 
5^  feet  in  the  rich  alluvial  lands. 

Planting  is  generally  done  with  a  planter,  though  it 
may  be  done  by  hand,  a  small  shovel  plow  being  used 


FIELD  OF  IMPROVED  COTTON,  SHOWING  METHOD  OF  RIDGE  CULTURE. 

to  open  the  furrow  for  the  seeds.  The  seeds  are  then 
covered  by  a  drag  or  harrow  or  small  plow.  About 
one  bushel  of  thirty  pounds  of  seed  is  required  to  plant 
an  acre.  The  seeds  are  put  in  much  thicker  than  re- 
quired for  a  stand.  Planting  is  begun  as  soon  as  the 
danger  of  frost  is  thought  to  have  passed.  About 
the  15th  of  March  would  be  early  planting  for  south- 
ern latitudes  and  May  15th  would  be  late  planting  for 
northern  latitudes.  The  planting  period  is  approxi- 
mately thirty  days  for  a  given  locality. 


FARM   CROPS.  113 

Thinning  to  a  Stand  is  accomplished  by  "  chopping 
out  "  with  a  hoe  the  excess  of  young  plants,  leaving 
three  or  four  stalks  in  hills  12  inches  apart  in  poor 
land,  and  as  much  as  20  to  24  inches  apart  in  rich 
bottom  land.  A  little  later  these  hills  are  thinned  to 
one  stalk.  No  machine  has  been  invented  that  will 
accomplish  this  work  satisfactorily,  but  off-barring 
close  to  the  row  so  as  to  leave  a  narrow  ridge  with 
abrupt  sides  greatly  facilitates  the  process,  and  lessens 
the  amount  of  hoeing  for  cleaning  the  land. 

Fertilizers  may  be  applied  before  the  seeds  are 
planted  or  at  the  time  of  returning  soil  to  the  plants 
after  chopping  out,  or  as  a  top  dressing  during  the 
cultivating  season.  When  the  fertilizer  is  sown  in  the 
middle  and  the  row  bedded  on  it  the  best  results  in 
early  maturity  will  be  secured  except  in  sandy  lands, 
where  fertilizers  should  be  applied  during  cultivation. 
Chemical  fertilizers  that  are  readily  soluble,  like  ni- 
trate of  soda,  are  applied  as  top  dressing,  and  appli- 
cation should  not  be  made  very  far  in  advance  of 
the  period  when  their  effect  is  desired.  Nitrogen 
stimulates  the  vigor  of  growth  in  stem  and  leaf. 
Phosphorus  stimulates  the  production  of  fruit,  and 
potassium  frequently  prevents  shedding  of  leaves  pre- 
maturely. Potassium  is  of  little  or  no  value  in  many 
soils.  On  average  soils  300  to  400  pounds  of  ferti- 
lizer made  of  equal  parts  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  high- 
grade  acid  phosphate  gives  good  results.  Where  a- 
crop  of  cowpeas  precedes  cotton,  or  where  large  stalks 
are  produced,  phosphate  only  should  be  used.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  500  pounds  of  lint  would  contain 
only  1.7  pounds  of  nitrogen,  .5  pounds  phosphoric 
acid  and  2.3  pounds  potassium;  but  that  the  accom- 
panying thousand  pounds  of  seed  would  contain  31 
pounds  nitrogen,  13  pounds  phosphoric  acid  and  12 
pounds  of  potassium.  It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the 
loss  of  fertility  is  mainly  in  the  seed,  and  the  nitrogen 
will  not  be  fully  restored  by  the  fertilizer  given  above. 
No  consideration  is  here  given  to  the  loss  in  the  stalks 


114  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


IMPROVEMENT   OF    SEA   ISLAND   COTTON    BY    SELECTION. 
O,  ordinary  cotton;  S,  selected  cotton. 

and  leaves.  When  these  are  burned  the  nitrogen  In 
them  is  lost.  A  portion  of  the  other  food  elements 
remains  in  the  ashes.  Where  it  is  possible  to  do  so, 
the  stalks  should  be  cut  with  a  stalk  cutter  and  plowed 
under. 

Cultivating. — The  method  of  cultivating  the  crop 
varies  greatly  in  different  sections.  In  the  light  soils 
sweeps  are  used  almost  entirely.  On  stiffer  soils  plows 
and  cultivators  are  used  more  extensively.  The  de- 
struction of  grass  and  weeds  and  the  conservation  of 
moisture  may  be  most  effectively  and  economically  ac- 
complished with  modern  cultivators,  and  their  use  is 
increasing.  The  soils  should  be  cultivated  as  soon 
as  possible  after  each  rain,  or  in  dry  weather  as  often 
as  may  be  necessary  to  maintain  a  mulch  of  loose  soil. 


FARM   CROPS. 


115 


A  man  with  a  double  team  can  cultivate  about  six  acres 
in  one  day.  If  the  middles  are  also  to  receive  addi- 
tional cultivation,  the  same  area  in  the  same  time  can 
be  gone  over  with  a  single  team  with  a  sweep  or  mid- 
dle cultivator.  The  lateness  to  which  cultivation  can 
be  carried  profitably  will  vary  greatly  in  different  sec- 
tions. 

Harvesting. — Cotton  is  harvested  by  hand  labor. 
A  moderately  good  hand  can  pick  200  pounds  of  seed 
cotton  in  a  day.  Picking  is  contracted  for  by  the  hun- 
dred pounds,  the  price  ranging  from  50  to  75  cents. 
Several  machines  for  picking  cotton  have  been  patented, 
but  none  of  them  have  come  Into  general  use. 

Ginning. — After  the  seed  cotton  leaves  the  farm 
it  Is  handled  entirely  by  machinery.  It  is  ginned, 
carded  and  woven  by  steam  power.  A  suction  fan 
lifts  it  from  the  wagon  to  the  gin,  where  revolving 
saws  take  off  the  lint,  leaving  the  clean  seed.  1,500 
pounds  of  short  staple  or  1,700  pounds  of  long  staple 


'^ 

'^^■j^ 

■^  **:%\:^ 

PICKING  COTTON. 


Ii6  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

will  give  a  bale  of  500  pounds  of  lint.  The  pressed 
bales  are  covered  with  jute  bagging  and  bound  with 
six  steel  bands.  It  takes  about  seven  yards  of  bagging 
to  cover  a  bale.  Ginning  is  done  at  a  stipulated  price 
per  hundred  pounds,  or  per  bale.  The  gin  saws  injure 
the  fiber  of  long  staple,  and  Sea  Island  is  ginned  on 
roller  gins.  Long  staple  upland  cotton  is  ginned  on 
saw  gins  run  at  a  slow  speed. 

Cotton  Seeds  are  delivered  to  the  oil  mills.  A  ton 
of  seed  will  give  about  40  gallons  of  oil,  800  pounds  of 
meal  and  about  the  same  amount  of  hulls.  From  40 
to  60  pounds  of  short  lint  called  "  linters  "  can  be  re- 
moved from  a  ton  of  seed  before  they  are  put  in  the 
hullers.  There  will  be  from  40  to  80  pounds  of  dirt 
and  trash.  The  real  value  of  the  seed  is  determined 
by  the  quality  of  oil  it  will  produce.  If  the  seeds 
have  been  kept  dry  and  are  well  matured  they  will  pro- 
duce fine  oil,  which  is  worth  sometimes  twice  as  much 
as  the  lower  grades  secured  from  damaged  seed.  The 
time  will  soon  come  when  seed  will  be  graded  by  the 
quality  of  oil  that  can  be  secured  from  them,  and  the 
farmer  will  be  repaid  for  taking  the  best  possible  care 
of  his  seed. 

Cotton-seed  meal  should  contain  41  per  cent,  pro- 
tein, 24  to  27  per  cent,  carbohydrates,  7  to  10  per  cent, 
fat,  thus  giving  one  of  our  most  highly  concentrated 
feed  stuffs. 

As  a  fertilizer  it  should  contain  6.58  per  cent,  nitro- 
gen, 2.8  per  cent,  phosphoric  acid  and  1.5  per  cent, 
potash. 

From  these  figures  one  can  readily  estimate  what 
should  be  the  relative  price  of  seed  and  meal. 

General  Statement. — A  considerable  portion  of  the 
cotton  crop  is  produced  by  negro  tenants,  who  work 
a  single  small  mule  or  pony,  using  only  a  small  turn 
plow,  a  harrow  and  a  sweep  as  implements.  The  land 
is  poorly  prepared  and  poorly  cultivated.  No  other 
crop  would  give  returns  under  the  same  treatment  suf- 
ficient to  supply  a  people  with  food  and  clothing. 


FARM   CROPS. 


117 


Probably  four-fifths  or  more  of  the  crop  is  produced 
on  the  credit  or  advancing  system.  The  farmer  pur- 
chases on  credit  from  the  merchant  his  implements  and 
provisions,  and  pledges  his  crop  for  payment.  The 
merchant  in  turn  pledges  the  crop  to  the  commission 
merchant  or  banks  to  secure  money  on  merchandise  to 
advance  the  farmer.     At  the  gathering  time  the  crop 


TOOLS   USED  IN   THE  CULTIVATION   OF  COTTON  AND  CORN. 

I,  Middle  buster  or  middle  splitter;  2,  stock  with  half  shovel  or  turning  plow;  3,  small 
solid  sweep;  4,  Georgia  stock  with  half  shovel  with  fender  attached  to  use  in  barring  off; 
Sjio-inch  heel  sweep;  6,  diamond  scooter;  7,  duck-bill  plow;  8,  solid  sweep  with  18-inch 
heel  sweep  attachecl  to  Georgia  stock;  9,  18-inch  heel  sweep;  10,  18-inch  solid  sweep 
attached  to  Georgia  stock;  11,  harrow;  12,  hoe — typical  form  of  those  used  in  chopping 
cotton;  13,  fertilizer  distributer;  14,  cotton  planter. 

is  rushed  into  the  market  in  a  few  months,  and  the  ac- 
counts are  settled  if  the  crop  brings  enough  to  pay  the 
debts.  If  not  the  old  debts  are  carried  over  to  the 
new  year  with  the  hope  that  better  yields  and  better 
prices  will  be  secured  the  coming  season. 

Exercise. — What  is  the  average  production  of  lint  cotton  per 
acre  at  your  home?  What  price  does  cotton  bring?  Does  the 
price  vary?     What  price  did  your  neighbors  receive  for  their  cot- 


Ii8  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

ton  seed  this  past  year?  What  is  the  best  way  to  plant  cotton  in 
your  section  ?  State  the  width  of  the  rows  and  the  distance  between 
the  plants  after  thinning.  Also  state  the  composition  of  the  fertilizers 
employed.  What  month  is  cotton  planted  at  your  home?  Visit  a  gin 
and  an  oil  mill  and  be  prepared  to  recite  on  the  manufacturing  proc- 
esses employed  in  preparing  cotton  and  its  products  for  market. 


Section  XXI. — Rice. 

By  Prof.  W.  R.  Dodson, 

Dean  of  College   of  Agriculture,   Louisiana    State   University,   and 
Director   Louisiana   Experiment    Stations. 

hnportance  of  the  Rice  Crop. — For  many  centuries 
rice  has  probably  been  the  most  important  grain  crop 
grown  for  human  consumption,  if  measured  by  the 
number  of  pounds  produced.  Statistics  indicate  that 
the  annual  crop  of  rice  at  the  present  time  is  a  little 
less  than  one  hundred  and  eleven  billion  pounds. 
Only  recently  has  this  quantity  been  surpassed  by  the 
production  of  corn  and  wheat.  The  United  States, 
exclusive  of  Hawaii  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  pro- 
duces annually  over  five  million  pounds  of  rice,  Louisi- 
ana, Texas,  South  Carolina  and  Arkansas  raising 
nearly  all  of  this  amount.  Rice  culture  is  being  ex- 
tended quite  rapidly  into  new  territory  in  Louisiana 
and  Arkansas,  and  no  doubt  large  areas  of  the  Delta 
lands  on  streams  tributary  to  the  Mississippi  River 
can  be  devoted  to  this  crop,  if  cotton  production  in 
the  presence  of  the  boll  weevil  cannot  be  made  re- 
munerative. The  consumption  of  rice  in  America  is 
increasing,  and  the  crop  will  be  of  increasing  impor- 
tance in  agriculture. 

Types. — The  rice  plant  is  an  annual  grass.  It 
stools  freely,  grows  to  a  height  of  two  to  six  feet,  bears 
from  lOO  to  200  or  more  grains  per  head,  which  ma- 
ture from  four  to  six  weeks  from  time  of  planting, 
some  varieties  being  earlier,  some  later  than  these  ex- 
tremes. There  are  a  very  large  number  of  varieties. 
Two  general  types  of  rice  are  recognized,  Honduras 


TYPES   OF   RICE. 
Honduras.  Japan. 


I20 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


and  Japan.  The  Honduras  type  has  a  long  grain, 
grows  taller,  thrives  in  cooler  weather,  and  is  planted 
earlier  than  the  Japan  type.  The  Japan  type  has  a 
short,  round  grain,  generally  requires  hotter  weather 
for  rapid  growth  and  is  planted  as  late  as  the  first  of 
June  in  South  Louisiana. 

Planting. — In    seeding    the    average    planter    uses 
from    sixty    to    seventy    pounds    of    seed    per    acre. 


A   FIELD  OF   RICE. 


On  fresh  lands  a  smaller  quantity  and  on  old  lands  a 
larger  quantity  is  required.  Seed  are  sown  on  well- 
prepared  land  by  a  grain  drill,  or  broadcasted  and 
harrowed  in.  A  grain  drill  costs  about  eighty  dollars 
and  should  last  eight  or  ten  years.  One  machine  will 
sow  ten  acres  or  more  per  day,  covering  the  seed  as 
sown. 

Flooding. — When  plants  are  about  six  inches  high 
flooding  begins,  and  the  land  is  submerged  for  about 
ninety  days  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than  four  inches. 


FARM   CROPS.  121 

Embankments,  or  levees,  are  built  with  plow  and 
shovel  on  contour  lines  of  the  topography  of  the  land, 
so  as  to  hold  the  water  at  the  desired  depth.  The 
greatest  depth  is  seldom  more  than  ten  to  twelve 
inches,  so  the  levees  are  built  on  six  or  eight  inch 
contour  lines. 

Cultivation  not  General. — In  the  United  States  rice 
is  not  cultivated  with  implements,  except  in  small  areas. 
Flooding  to  destroy  weeds  and  soften  the  soil  is  more 
profitable. 

Stretch  Water  Flooding. — In  Carolina  water  is 
turned  on  as  soon  as  the  rice  is  tall  enough  to  permit 
flooding  without  submerging  the  young  plants,  this 
flooding  being  designated  as  "  stretch  water  "  flooding, 
because  the  early  irrigation  is  supposed  to  cause  the 
blades  to  elongate.  After  a  period  the  water  Is  with- 
drawn, the  crop  hoed  and  allowed  to  stand  dry  for 
some  time;  then  the  crop  is  flooded  again  and  the 
water  is  kept  on  it  continuously  until  the  approach  of 
the  harvest  season.  Along  the  Atlantic  Coast  the  tide 
water  is  used  for  irrigation.  In  other  sections  water 
is  pumped  from  streams  or  wells. 

Conveying  Water  by  Gravity  and  the  Syphon. — In 
the  alluvial  lands  the  areas  nearest  the  streams  are 
higher  than  those  more  remote,  and  when  the  water 
is  raised  to  the  top  of  the  bank  it  is  readily  conveyed 
to  any  portion  of  the  field  desired  by  gravity.  Where 
protection  levees  are  constructed  along  streams  the 
water  is  pumped  into  a  pond  on  the  river  side  of  the 
levee  and  then  carried  across  the  levee  by  a  syphon. 
Frequently  the  annual  high  water  comes  at  the  season 
irrigation  is  desired,  and  the  water  is  high  enough  on 
the  levee  to  enable  the  planter  to  operate  the  syphon 
without  the  aid  of  a  pump.  The  cost  of  irrigation  Is 
then  at  Its  minimum. 

Canals. — In  the  prairies  of  Texas,  Louisiana  and 
Arkansas  large  canals  are  constructed  above  ground 
for  conveying  the  water  across  the  country  for  many 
miles,  and  very  large  pumping  plants  are  installed  to 


122  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

lift  water  from  the  streams  into  these  canals,  and 
thousands  of  acres  are  irrigated  from  one  canal.  En- 
terprises of  this  kind  are  operated  by  corporations 
which  charge  fees  or  a  per  cent,  of  the  crop  as  rental 
for  water  furnished  the  rice  grower.  One-fifth  of  the 
crop  is  a  standard  charge. 

Wells. — It  costs  from  two  to  six  dollars  per  acre  to 
supply  water  from  a  well.  Where  well  water  is  used 
the  wells  are  bored  to  a  depth  of  200  to  325  feet,  and 
are  generally  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter.  One 
well  should  furnish  enough  water  for  200  acres  or 
more.  It  costs  from  three  to  four  dollars  a  foot  to 
put  down  such  wells.  A  pump  costs  six  or  seven  hun- 
dred dollars.  Steam  or  gasoline  power  is  used  to 
drive  the  pump.  A  horse-power  of  thirty-five  is  con- 
sidered desirable  for  this  work.  The  cost  of  the 
power  ranges  from  a  thousand  to  fifteen  hundred  dol- 
lars. About  thirteen  thousand  five  hundred  gallons  of 
water  are  required  daily  for  an  acre  of  rice. 

Harvesting. — The  water  is  withdrawn  as  the  grain 
begins  to  turn  yellow,  which  is  usually  ten  days  to  two 
weeks  in  advance  of  the  harvest.  Harvest  begins  in 
early  August,  and  continues  until  the  middle  of  Oc- 
tober. Where  the  soil  is  firm,  and  the  levees  not  too 
close  together,  the  crop  is  harvested  with  the  grain 
harvester,  M'hich  will  cut  about  eight  acres  a  day  with 
first-class  team  power.  The  grain  is  tied  in  bundles 
by  the  machine  with  a  hemp  string,  and  the  bundles 
dropped  in  groups  ready  for  shocking.  Harvesting 
costs  about  one  dollar  per  acre.  The  harvesting  ma- 
chine costs  $175  and  should  last  five  or  six  years  when 
properly  cared  for.  The  bundles  are  assembled  in 
shocks  of  sixteen  to  twenty  or  more,  the  bundles 
standing  on  end,  and  are  capped  with  two  bundles,  the 
straw  of  which  is  broken  in  the  middle  suificiently  to 
cause  both  ends  to  droop  when  the  bundle  is  supported 
in  the  middle.  These  serve  as  a  cover  to  shed  water 
and  protect  the  grain  from  sunshine  and  birds.  Two 
men  can  shock  the  grain  as  fast  as  one  machine  can 


FARM   CROPS. 


123 


cut  it.  The  rice  remains  in  the  shock  until  cured,  and 
may  then  be  stacked  or  hauled  directly  to  the  factory. 
If  stacked  and  allowed  to  go  through  the  "  sweat,"  the 
quality  of  the  grain  is  improved.  Where  harvesting 
machines  cannot  be  used  the  rice  is  cut  with  a  sickle, 
spread  on  the  stubble  to  cure,  and  is  then  tied  by  hand 
in  bundles,  and  shocked  as  above  described.  The  ma- 
terial used  here  for  tying  is  a  bunch  of  rice  straws. 
Harvesting  in  this  way  costs  from  four  to  seven^doUars 
per  acre. 

Threshing  and  Yields. — Threshing  is  done  by  the 


THRESHING   RICE. 


same  machines  made  for  wheat,  except  that  they  are 
built  for  heavier  work,  and  the  screens  are  slightly 
modified.  A  threshing  machine,  including  self-feeder, 
straw  stacker  and  grain  sacker,  costs  about  a  thou- 
sand dollars,  without  the  power  to  run  it.  A  trac- 
tion engine  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  horse-power 
is  generally  used  in  the  prairie  section.  Station- 
ary engines  are  usually  employed  in  the  alluvial 
lands.  A  good  machine  will  thresh  from  three  to  four 
hundred  sacks  per  day.  The  threshed  rice  is  put  in 
four  bushel   sacks,    and  the   crop   yield   is   estimated 


124  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

by  the  farmer  in  sacks.  A  sack  will  weigh  from 
one  hundred  and  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  ninety 
pounds,  though  a  bushel  is  supposed  to  be  forty- 
four  pounds.  An  acre  of  rice  in  the  prairie  section 
will  produce  from  six  to  fifteen  sacks.  Ten  sacks  is  a 
good  average.  The  alluvial  lands  produce  from  30  to 
40  per  cent.  more.  Much  larger  yields  are  sometimes 
secured.  It  costs  from  ten  to  twelve  cents  a  sack  to 
thresh  rice  exclusive  of  the  cost  of  the  bag.  The  grain 
coming  from  the  threshing  machine  is  designated  as 
rough  rice,  sometimes  called  "  paddy."  In  this  form 
it  goes  to  the  miller.  It  is  sold  by  the  barrel  of  162 
pounds.  F'or  the  milling  products  of  rough  rice  con- 
sult the  chapter  on  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Fertilizers  are  not  extensively  used  in  rice  growing. 
Their  influence  in  production  in  yield  and  quality  of 
grain  has  not  been  well  worked  out.  In  Louisiana  and 
Texas  the  addition  of  phosphorus  to  the  soil  generally 
increases  the  yield  perceptibly.  A  small  amount  of 
nitrogen  is  beneficial  on  old  lands,  but  should  be  used 
cautiously,  as  it  may  cause  the  rice  to  lodge  (fall 
down).  Potash  is  thought  by  some  of  the  best  plant- 
ers to  harden  the  grain  and  improve  the  milling  quality. 
It  is  presumed  that  nitrification  is  retarded  or  sus- 
pended during  the  period  of  irrigation,  and  where  or- 
ganic fertilizers  are  to  be  applied,  they  should  be  used 
as  far  in  advance  of  planting  as  circumstances  will 
permit. 

Rotation  of  Crops  in  rice  culture  is  essential.  Red 
rice  (a  weed)  and  water  weeds  accumulate  in  succes- 
sion rice  so  as  to  make  the  crop  unprofitable.  On  the 
alluvial  lands  after  two  or  three  crops  of  rice  the 
fields  lie  idle  for  a  year  or  may  be  devoted  to  cotton  or 
corn.  In  the  prairie  section  no  effort  is  made  to  cul- 
tivate the  rice  fields  with  any  other  crop. 

Rice  Weeds  are  a  serious  menace  to  the  crop  every- 
where, except  in  the  newest  lands.  Much  can  be  done 
to  diminish  the  trouble  by  a  small  expenditure  in  efforts 
to  prevent  seeds  from  maturing  after  the  rice  crop  Is 


FARM   CROPS.  125 

harvested.  The  damage  to  the  crop  is  not  limited  to 
the  influence  on  yields,  but  decreases  the  price  when 
seeds  are  sent  to  market  with  the  grain. 

Diseases. — The  only  serious  disease  of  the  rice  is 
"  blast  "  or  "  rotten  neck."  This  disease  is  some- 
times serious  on  the  Atlantic  Coast.  The  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  has  demonstrated  that  the 
disease  can  be  almost  exterminated  by  the  use  of  lime 
on  the  soil.  Two  smuts  destroy  occasional  grains  on 
the  Gulf  Coast,  but  neither  is  yet  a  serious  disease. 

Insect  Enemies  of  the  rice  crop  are  not  abundant. 
The  rice  weevil  causes  some  damage  to  stored  grain, 
but  this  can  be  largely  prevented  by  fumigation.  The 
corn-root  worm  and  the  rice  maggot  cause  some  de- 
struction of  the  young  crop  in  early  spring,  but  by 
proper  manipulation  of  the  water  damage  from  these 
insects  can  be  greatly  minimized.  Some  damage  is 
occasioned  by  bugs  stinging  the  grain  when  it  is  in  the 
milk  or  dough  stage.  No  remedy  for  this  trouble  has 
yet  been  discovered. 

Exercise. — If  rice  is  grown  in  your  locality,  name  the  popular  type. 
Why  is  this  type  given  preference?  Do  any  of  the  planters  import 
seed  from  foreign  countries?  Why?  Are  weeds  ever  introduced  in 
this  way?  What  effect  has  the  rice  crop  on  the  fertility  of  the 
land?  If  fertilizers  are  used  find  out  the  percentages  of  available 
phosphoric  acid,  nitrogen  and  potash  contained  in  the  most  popular 
brands.  How  much  fertilizer  is  used  per  acre  and  when  is  it  ap- 
plied? 

The  threshing  of  rice  should  be  explained  to  the  class  by  a  visit 
to  a  rice  plantation  during  the  harvest  season. 

Section  XXII. — Oats,  Wheat,  Rye,  Barley. 

By  Prof.  O.  D.  Center, 
Department  of  Crop  Production,  University  of  Illinois. 

General  Description. — The  great  family  of  true 
grasses  (Gramineae)  has  four  very  important  mem- 
bers represented  by  the  cereals — oats,  wheat,  rye  and 
barley.  These  grasses  are  all  characterized  by  their 
hollow  stems,  closed  joints,  leaves  on  alternate  sides  of 
the  stem,  and  with  the  leaf  sheath  which  envelops  the 


126 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Stem  split  on  the  side  opposite  the  leaf  blade.  Wheat, 
rye  and  barley  all  belong  to  the  same  tribe  of  the 
grass  family,  but  oats  belong  to  a  different  tribe. 

There  are  a  number  of  well-known  pasture  and 
meadow  grasses  as  well  as  several  troublesome  weeds 
which  belong  to  the  same  tribe  as  wheat,  rye  and  bar- 
ley. The  tribe,  Aveneae,  however,  has  scarcely  an- 
other member  of   any  great   importance   except  oats, 


A   GOOD   STAND   OF   OATS. 


although  it  contains  one  member  that  is  a  serious  pest 
known  as  Avena  fatua,  or  wild  oats. 

Wheat,  rye  and  barley  all  resemble  each  other  in 
the  general  shape  and  formation  of  the  seed  head. 
They  all  produce  their  flowers  on  unbranched  stemless 
spikelets,  on  alternate  sides  of  the  main  stalk,  thus 
forming  a  compact  head  which  is  known  as  a  spike. 
Oats  on  the  other  hand  show  no  resemblance  to  the 
sort  of  seed  head  produced  by  wheat,  rye  or  barley, 
and  indeed,  show  considerable  variation  within  the 
tribe. 


FARM    CROPS.  127 

The  seed  head  of  oats  bears  its  flowers  on  alternate 
sides  of  the  main  stem  as  does  wheat,  rye  or  barley, 
but  these  flowers  are  borne  upon  branches  which  vary 
in  length  and  position.  This  arrangement  forms  a 
head  which  is  called  a  panicle;  this  may  be  open  or 
closed,  one-sided  or  symmetrical,  since  each  spikelet  is 
borne  at  the  end  of  a  limber  stem,  and  these  stems  are 
of  variable  length. 

Oats — The  Plant. — The  oat  plant  is,  generally 
speaking,  more  quickly  influenced  by  a  fertile  soil  and 
a  favorable  season  of  growth  than  the  other  members 
of  the  grass  family.  Hunt*  states  that  the  height  of 
the  oat  plant  probably  averages  three  and  one-half 
feet.  The  Kansas  Stationf  shows  that  as  an  average 
of  three  years,  and  with  thirteen  varieties  the  height  of 
the  plant  was  40  inches.  Differences  in  height  are 
found,  however,  even  among  different  individuals  of 
the  same  variety. 

Upon  germination  the  oat  plant  pushes  what  ap- 
pears to  be  a  single,  tightly  rolled  pale  green  leaf 
through  the  soil  to  the  surface.  This  leaf  Is  soon 
supplemented  with  a  second  leaf,  and  within  a  com- 
paratively short  time  with  several  more.  For  a  con- 
siderable length  of  time  this  appearance  of  the  plant 
indicates  nothing  but  leaves,  which  are  spreading 
rather  than  upright  in  their  character  of  growth.  As 
soon,  however,  as  the  oat  plant  begins  to  "  shoot," 
which  means  a  lengthening  of  the  internodes  of  the 
stem,  and  a  pushing  up  of  the  seed  head,  the  whole 
appearance  of  the  plant  changes.  The  leaves  which 
were  formerly  bunched  together  close  to  the  ground 
are  now  scattered  along  the  stalk,  and  the  whole  plant 
appears  somewhat  sparsely  leaved  and  naked.  This 
appearance  is  intensified  as  maturity  approaches,  since 
the  lower  leaves  lose  their  activity  and  color,  and  be- 
come shriveled  and  dry.  The  head  and  upper  stem 
remain  green  the  longest,  although  this  condition  is 
less  marked  with  oats  than  with  wheat,  rye  or  barley. 

*  Cereals  in  America.  t  Bulletin  No.   166. 


128  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


A    TYPICAL    OAT    PANICLE — SPREADING    TYPE. 

The  Roots. — When  a  grain  of  oats  germinates 
there  is  a  circle  (whorl)  of  three  temporary  or  seminal 
roots  thrown  out  from  the  point  where  the  radicle 
breaks  through  the  seed  oats.  These  seminal  roots 
are  soon  replaced  by  the  coronal,  or  permanent  ones, 
which  are  thrown  out   from  the  nodes.     The  space 


FARM    CROPS.  129 

between  the  seminal  and  coronal  roots  will  depend  al- 
most wholly  on  the  depth  of  planting  the  seed  oats. 

Usually,  when  moisture  conditions  are  normal,  the 
permanent  roots  start  out  about  one  inch  below  the 
surface,  but  any  node  below  the  soil  or  even  above  the 
surface,  but  very  near  to  it,  may  throw  out  a  whorl 
of  roots.  The  permanent  roots  soon  occupy  all  the 
available  surface  soil,  since  they  grow  rapidly,  branch- 
ing and  rebranching  so  abundantly  that  the  whole  soil 
area  is  soon  filled  with  a  mass  of  roots.  As  soon  as 
this  condition  is  reached  the  roots  descend  at  a  rather 
sharp  angle.  The  Minnesota*  and  Dakota  Stations 
have  found  that  these  roots  are  numerous  to  a  depth 
of  four  feet,  and  that  occasionally  they  may  be  found 
to  a  depth  of  six  or  seven  feet.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  purpose  of  these  deep-growing  roots  is  to  secure 
water. 

The  Stalk  (culm). — The  stalk,  of  oats,  wheat,  rye 
and  barley  is  similar  in  all  respects  except  in  height. 
The  stalk  of  oats  is  usually  a  little  larger  in  circum- 
ference and  less  harsh  or  tough  in  texture  than  the 
stalk  of  the  other  grains  mentioned.  In  height,  rye 
is  the  tallest  of  these  four  cereals,  wheat  and  barley 
are  practically  the  same  height,  although  barley  is 
more  often  the  shorter  of  the  two,  while  oats  is  the 
shortest  in  height  of  straw  of  any  of  the  four.  The 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  have  a  greater  influence 
on  the  culm  of  oats  than  on  wheat,  rye  or  barley. 
The  length  of  the  culm  exerts  a  considerable  influence 
on  the  liability  to  lodge,  and  also  on  the  ease  or  diflfi- 
culty  in  harvesting.  The  height  and  vigor  of  the 
culm  determines  to  a  considerable  extent  the  propor- 
tion of  grain  to  straw  secured.  Generally  speaking  a 
height  and  vigor  that  is  common,  although  not  at  all 
invariable,  yields  one  pound  of  grain  to  two  pounds 
of  straw. 

The  Leaves. — The  leaf  of  the  oat  plant  is  made  up 
of  four  parts :  ( i )  The  blade  which  is  the  free  end 
*  Minnesota  Bulletin,  No.  62. 


130  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

of  the  leaf  and  which  varies  in  length,  width,  shape, 
hairiness,  and  shape  and  prominence  of  veins;  (2)  the 
sheath  which  in  all  plants  of  the  grass  family  encloses 
the  stem  tightly  and  is  split  down  the  side  of  the  stem 
opposite  the  leaf  blade;  upon  removing  the  sheath 
from  any  internode  of  the  culm  while  the  plant  is 
green  and  growing,  the  culm  underneath  will  be  found 
white  and  tender;  (3)  the  ligule,  a  thin  tissue-like 
guard  or  band  which  forms  the  connecting  line  between 
the  blade  and  the  sheath  and  which  clasps  the  stalk 
tightly;  this  together  with  the  (4)  auricles,  other  thin 
projections  of  leaf  tissue  which  are  at  the  junction  of 
the  leaf  and  sheath,  and  which  are  at  either  side  of 
the  upper  end  of  the  sheath  act  as  a  rain  and  dust 
guard,  thus  preventing  these  from  getting  in  between 
the  sheath  and  the  internode  which  it  envelops. 

The  Head  (panicle). — A  typical  oat  head  usually 
contains  from  three  to  five  whorls  of  small  branches, 
each  in  turn  bearing  from  three  to  five  florets  or  spike- 
lets.  Each  floret  is  at  the  end  of  a  limber  pedicel 
which  is  of  such  variable  length  as  to  form  a  head 
which  may  appear  very  compact  or  one  that  may  be 
equally  open.  Each  floret  is  composed  of  two  or 
more  flowers,  but  it  is  seldom  that  more  than  two 
flowers  mature. 

Of  these  two  flowers  that  normally  mature  the 
lower  invariably  forms  the  larger  grain.  This  large 
grain  usually  bears  an  awn,  although  the  length  and 
persistence  of  this  awn  varies  greatly  with  the  differ- 
ent varieties  of  oats.  When  but  a  single  flower  ma- 
tures the  oats  are  known  as  "  single  "  oats,  but  when, 
as  is  usual,  two  flowers  mature,  the  oats  are  known  as 
"  twin  "  oats.  The  entire  panicle  varies  in  length, 
but  will  usually  average  about  ten  inches. 

The  general  shape  and  structure  of  the  oat  grain 
is  similar  to  that  of  wheat,  rye  and  barley,  except  that 
it  is  more  elongated,  has  a  hairy  pericarp,  and  remains 
enclosed  in  its  hull  (flowering  glume  and  palea). 
The  per  cent,  of  hull  on  oats  depends  on  conditions  of 


FARM    CROPS.  131 

environment  and  on  variety,  since  it  varies  from 
twenty  to  sometimes  fifty  per  cent.  The  average 
amount  of  hull  in  American  grown  oats  is  about  thirty 
per  cent.  When  oats  are  used  for  oatmeal,  or  rolled 
oats,  the  manufacturer  desires  a  plump,  heavy  grain 
with  a  thin  hull. 

Position  of  Oats  as  a  Crop. — Oats  stand  second 
among  the  cereals  of  the  United  States  as  regards 
number  of  bushels  produced.  They  are  excelled  only 
by  corn.  In  total  acreage  or  in  money  value  of  the 
grain  they  take  third  place  among  the  cereals.  As 
oats  do  not  do  well  in  warm  climates,  we  find  that 
more  than  three-fourths  of  all  those  grown  in  the 
United  States  are  produced  north  of  the  thirty-eighth 
parallel.  The  North  Central  states  lying  both  east 
and  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  are  the  states  pro- 
ducing the  great  bulk  of  all  the  oats  grown. 

Classification  of  Oats. — Oats  are  classified  as  spring 
and  fall  varieties.  The  fall  varieties  are  grown  prin- 
cipally south  of  38  degrees  North  latitude,  although 
within  the  past  few  years  there  have  been  developed 
hardier  varieties  of  this  class,  until  occasionally  we 
now  find  fall  sown  oats  as  far  north  as  Central  Ohio 
or  Illinois.  Where  fall  sown  oats,  usually  called 
"  winter  oats,"  can  be  successfully  grown  they  are  pref- 
erable to  spring  sown  oats.  They  make  an  early  and 
vigorous  growth,  head  from  a  week  to  ten  days  earlier 
than  the  spring  sown  grain,  ripen  earlier  and  more 
uniformly  and  produce  grain  of  better  quality  and 
of  heavier  yield.  The  Ohio  Station*  has  found  that 
a  two  years'  trial  with  winter  oats  showed  them  to 
outyield  the  spring  sown  sorts  by  3.6  bushels  of  grain, 
which  in  turn  averaged  six  pounds  heavier  per  bushel 
than  did  the  spring  oats. 

Oats  are  farther  classified  as  spreading  and  side 
oats.  This  classification  is  based  wholly  on  the  type 
of  seed  head  produced.  Spreading  oats  are  those 
with  an  open  panicle,  much  branched,   and  with  the 

♦Circular   No.  88. 


132 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


branches  arranged  symmetrically  about  the  central 
stem.  Side  oats  on  the  other  hand  have  the  branch- 
ing of  the  panicle 
greatly  restricted,  and 
all  the  branches  hang 
from  one  side  of  the 
main  stem.  In  exten- 
sive variety  tests  car- 
ried on  by  several  sta- 
tions it  is  found  that 
less  than  one-tenth  of 
the  total  number  of 
varieties  tested  be- 
longed to  the  type 
"  side  oats." 

The    classification 
of   oats   as   given   by 
the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agricul- 
ture appears  the  most 
comprehensive  and 
reasonable      of     any 
classification  yet  sug- 
gested.   This  division 
is  based  on  characteristic  features  of  the  types  and  va- 
rieties represented,  so  that  the  name  applied  to  any 
class  indicates  its  distinguishing  feature. 
This  classification  includes  five  groups : 

1.  Northern  oats. 

2.  Early  oats. 

3.  Red  oats. 

4.  Winter  oats. 

5.  Hulless  oats. 

Northern  oats  are  such  as  are  most  commonly 
grown  north  of  the  fortieth  parallel.  They  include 
a  large  number  of  varieties  and  types  of  grain,  but  are 
generally  characterized  by  requiring  from  100  to  125 
days  to  mature  fully.  Early  oats  are  also  largely 
grown  throughout  the   same   area   as  the   Northern 


A   TYPICAL    OAT    PANICLE — CLOSED,    OR 
SIDE    TYPE. 


FARM    CROPS.  133 

class,  but  these  are  characterized  by  their  early  matu- 
rity, about  ninety  days,  their  comparatively  short,  fine, 
stiff  straw  and  their  long,  slender  grains.  These  two 
sorts  comprise  more  than  two-thirds  of  all  the  oats 
produced  in  the  United  States.  Red  oats  are  varie- 
ties of  a  brown  or  red  color,  developed  into  and  espe- 
cially adapted  to  the  warmer  states.  The  grain  is  usu- 
ally large  and  plump  with  a  heavy  hull  and  often  with 
a  stiff  short  awn  or  beard,  which  is  persistent  on  the 
back  of  the  large  grain  of  the  twin  oats  in  a  spikelet. 
This  class  together  with  the  winter  oats  are  the  most 
common  sorts  of  the  Southern  States. 

Hulless  oats  are  an  unimportant  class,  and  may  be 
found  in  limited  quantities  in  almost  any  oat  produc- 
ing section.  They  derive  their  name  from  the  fact 
that  the  outer  hull,  which  commonly  clings  to  oats  be- 
longing to  the  other  classes,  is  in  this  class  removed  in 
threshing. 

Improvement  of  Oats. — Much  less  has  been  done 
toward  the  improvement  of  oats  than  with  wheat  or 
barley.  All  of  the  classes  mentioned  can  be  consid- 
erably improved.  Selection  of  varieties  of  the  differ- 
ent classes  which  are  earlier,  more  hardy,  possess  stiffer 
straw,  and  that  are  more  resistant  to  drought,  heat, 
and  disease  will  do  much  toward  the  rapid  improve- 
ment of  oats.  Considerable  gain  can  be  made  by  giv- 
ing greater  attention  to  the  character  and  fertility  of 
the  soil,  to  the  selection  of  better  seed,  and  to  the 
preparation  of  the  seed  bed  upon  which  the  oats  are 
sown.  The  careful  and  complete  preparation  of  the 
seed  bed,  the  use  of  only  large  plump  seed,  and  sow- 
ing oats  with  the  drill  rather  than  broadcast  have  been 
repeatedly  shown  to  result  in  rapid  improvement  and 
in  increased  yields.  The  rate  of  seeding  per  acre  can 
be  greatly  lessened  when  there  is  a  better  preparation 
of  the  seed  bed,  and  when  the  grain  drill  is  used  in 
seeding.  The  Experiment  Stations  of  Minnesota, 
Ohio,  Kansas  and  of  Ontario  have  each  reported  im- 
provement of  yield  and  quality  when  only  the  large 


134 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


OAT  FIELD  SHOWING  INCREASED  VIGOR  OF  GROWTH  DUE  TO  SEED  SELEC- 
TION  AND   GRADING. 

plump,  heavy  seed  was  sown  in  comparison  to  the 
small,  light  weight  seed.  The  Stations  of  Illinois, 
Kansas,  Iowa  and  Ontario  also  report  increased  yields 
o^  5'  5-3^  9-6>  and  4  bushels  more  grain  per  acre,  re- 
spectively, when  oats  were  drilled  instead  of  broad- 
casted. 

Seeding  of  Oats. — The  time  of  oats  seeding  differs 
naturally  with  the  latitude  of  the  section  in  which  they 
are  grown.  In  the  Southern  States  where  winter  va- 
rieties are  sown,  the  best  results  are  secured  when  the 
grain  is  sown  between  October  10  and  November  10. 
The  spring  sown  sorts  are  produced  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage when  seeded  during  February.  The  North- 
ern States  vary  in  seeding  time  from  March  first  to 
May  first,  depending  almost  wholly  upon  the  latitude. 
Kansas  is  the  state  north  of  parallel  38  degrees  to 
begin  oats  seeding  earliest  in  the  spring,  closely  fol- 
lowed by  Missouri,  Southern  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio 


FARM    CROPS. 


135 


and  Pennsylvania ;  then  by  Nebraska,  Northern  Illi- 
nois, Iowa,  Minnesota  and  Wisconsin,  and  finally  dur- 
ing the  last  of  April  and  the  first  week  of  May  by  the 
Canadian  provinces. 

The  rate  of  seeding  will  also  vary  both  with  the 
latitude  and  with  the  method  of  seeding  practised. 
Generally  speaking,  it  has  been  shown  advisable  to 
seed  oats  at  the  rate  of  from  6  to  10  pecks  per  acre, 
the  rate  depending  largely  on  the  type  of  soil  on  which 
they  are  sown,  the  method  of  seeding  practised,  and 
the  use  to  which  the  crop  is  put.  The  Ohio  Station  in 
a  series  of  tests  covering  eleven  years  found  that  with 
all  varieties  of  all  types  tested,  a  seeding  of  eleven 
pecks  per  acre  was  advisable.  Where  clover  is  seeded 
with  oats  as  a  nurse  crop,  as  is  often  done,  a  lighter 
seeding  is  desirable  than  would  otherwise  be  given 
were  the  oats  sown  alone. 

Yield  of  Oats. — The  yield  per  acre  of  oats  steadily 
increases  from  the  South  toward  the  North.     In  the 


DIFFERENT    STAGES    OF    SMUT   DEVELOPMENT    IN    THE    OAT    HEAD. 


136  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Southern  States  the  yield  per  acre  has  averaged  less 
than  eighteen  bushels  during  the  past  forty  years.  In 
the  Central  portion  of  the  United  States,  which  in- 
cludes Virginia,  the  southern  portion  of  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Missouri,  etc.,  the  yield  gradually  increases  until  an 
average  of  nearly  twenty-five  bushels  per  acre  is  se- 
cured. The  northern  half  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illi- 
nois, together  with  Iowa,  Wisconsin,  Nebraska,  Michi- 
gan, and  South  Dakota,  show  an  average  yield  of 
nearly  thirty-five  bushels  per  acre,  while  yields  of  60 
to  75  bushels  with  an  occasional  100  bushels  are  not  un- 
common with  the  men  who  give  their  soil,  seed,  and 
sowing  the  greatest  amount  of  attention.  In  Canada 
the  yield  per  acre  is  considerably  higher  than  in  the 
United  States,  since  fifty  bushels  may  safely  be  taken 
as  an  average,  and  a  lOO-bushel  yield  is  often  secured. 
Enemies  of  Oats. — Oats  have  practically  the  same 
enemies  to  contend  with  in  the  way  of  weeds  and  in- 
sects as  do  wheat,  barley  and  rye.  The  weeds  most 
often  injurious  to  the  crop  are  the  smart  weeds,  the 
milk  weeds,  and  the  wild  mustards.  The  insects  most 
commonly  found  doing  damage  are  the  chinch  bug, 
army  worm,  and  sometimes  the  grasshopper.  The 
fungus  diseases  most  commonly  attacking  oats  arc 
two  species  of  rust  and  two  forms  of  smut.  For  the 
rusts  there  is  no  known  remedy,  but  for  the  smuts,  the 
treatment  of  the  seed  grain  with  formalin  solution,  is 
not  only  an  inexpensive  but  an  effective  means  of  pre- 
vention. 

Wheat. 

The  Plant. — In  general,  the  description  of  the 
wheat  plant  differs  but  little  from  that  of  oats.  In 
particular,  it  is  usually  of  a  different  shade  of  green  in 
color,  of  a  hardier  character,  of  slightly  taller  growth, 
and  of  a  decidedly  harsher  or  stiffer  straw.  Its  gen- 
eral character  of  growth  from  germination  until  the 
heading  period  differs  but  little  from  that  of  oats,  ex- 
cept that  some  of  the  varieties  of  most  of  the  species 


FARM    CROPS.  137 

of  wheat  are  of  a  more  prolonged  period  of  growth 
than  is  generally  required  for  oats. 

In  height,  the  wheat  plant  is  from  two  to  five  feet, 
the  shorter  wheat  being  found  among  the  sub-species 
known  as  "  club  "  wheat,  and  the  taller  found  among 
the  late  maturing  varieties  of  the  sub-species  known  as 
"  bread  "  wheat. 


TYPICAL    HEADS   OF    BEARDED    WHEAT. 

Among  the  varieties  of  wheat  commonly  sown  there 
is  found  much  greater  diversity  of  forms  and  character 
of  plants  before  they  begin  to  develop  a  stalk  and  a 
seed  head  than  is  common  among  oats.  These  dif- 
ferences are  shown  by  the  width,  length,  and  number 
of  leaves  as  well  as  by  the  tendency  of  the  plants  to 
grow  somewhat  erect,  or  to  remain  recumbent.  As 
soon  as  the  plant  begins  to  joint  (that  is,  to  put  forth 
a  seed  stalk) ,  the  resemblance  to  oats  becomes  more 


138  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

marked,  until  the  putting  forth  of  the  head.  The  gen- 
eral appearance,  however,  makes  it  comparatively  easy 
to  distinguish  between  wheat  and  oat  plants  at  almost 
any  stage  of  their  growth,  except  at  a  time  when  the 
plants  are  quite  young. 

The  Roots. — Wheat,  upon  germination,  puts  forth 
a  circle  of  three  temporary  roots  at  the  point  where 
the  radicle  breaks  through  the  seed  coats  in  exactly  the 
same  manner  as  oats.  The  permanent  roots  soon  fol- 
low, issuing  from  the  nodes.  Any  node  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil,  or  even  near  the  soil  above  the 
surface,  may  throw  out  a  whorl  of  roots.  Upon  con- 
tinued growth  these  roots  extend  on  all  sides  of  the 
plant,  gradually  going  deeper  until  a  depth  of  from 
ten  to  eighteen  inches  is  reached,  depending  largely  on 
the  character  of  the  soil.  From  this  depth  the  roots 
descend  almost  vertically,  following  almost  invariably 
the  line  of  the  least  resistance.  Thus  we  find  the  deep 
roots  occupying  an  abandoned  passage  made  by  a 
worm  or  an  old  crawfish  hole,  or  the  space  occupied 
by  the  deep  tap  root  of  a  preceding  clover  plant,  or 
even  a  crack  formed  sometime  previously  during  some 
excessively  dry  spell.  These  passages  naturally  fill  up 
easily  and  quickly  during  rains  with  the  sediment  from 
the  surface,  and  the  soil  within  them  is  therefore  less 
firm  and  compact.  It  also  probably  contains  a  higher 
percentage  of  available  moisture  and  plant  food. 

The  Stalk  (culm). — As  with  oats,  the  culm  of 
wheat  is  a  slender,  elongated  cylinder  divided  into  un- 
equal sections  by  joints  or  nodes.  Unlike  oats,  how- 
ever, the  culm  of  wheat  Is  more  often  more  or  less 
filled  with  pith,  and  is  also  more  variable  in  thickness 
of  walls  and  in  color. 

The  length  of  culm  varies  greatly  with  different  va- 
rieties, and  although  there  is  no  definite  relation  be- 
tween height  and  yield  it  is  commonly  thought,  other 
things  being  equal,  that  the  longer  the  culm  the  higher 
the  yield  of  grain.  Certain  it  is  that  the  production 
of  a  tall  culm  will  more  quickly  deplete  the  fertility  of 


FARM    CROPS. 


139 


the  soil,  if  the  straw  is  not  returned  to  the  land,  than 
the  production  of  a  short-stalked  sort  under  the  same 
conditions. 

The  Leaves. — The  leaves  of  the  wheat  plant  re- 
quire no  more  detailed  description  as  to  their  struc- 
ture, than  has  already  been  given  to  oats.  This  same 
general  description  applies  also  to  the  structure  of  the 
leaves  of  both  rye  and  barley.  Aside  from  their  dif- 
ference in  shade  of  color,  their  greater  width,  and  a 
common  production  of  more  hair  on  their  upper  sur- 
faces-, the  leaves  of  the  wheat  plant  are  not  at  all  un- 
like those  of  the  oat  plant. 

The  Head  (spike). — Although  the  resemblance  be- 
tween the  oat  and  the  wheat  plant  may  be  considerable 


^K^f^l 

■ 

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TYPICAL    HEADS    OF    BKAKULESS    WHEAT. 


I40 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


when  the  roots,  culms  and  leaves  only  are  considered, 
the  resemblance  ceases  when  the  seed  head  Is  exam- 
ined. Instead  of  a  loosely  constructed  branched  pani- 
cle we  find  a  more  or  less  compact,  unbranched  head, 
called  a  spike.  The  splkelets  that  form  the  wheat 
head  are  arranged  alternately  at  the  joints  of  the  stem, 
and  the  joints  are  short  and  very  closely  set.  The 
portion  of  the  stem  which  bears  the  head  is  bent  or 


TYPICAL   WHEAT   GRAINS. 


hollowed  out  on  the  side  next  to  the  splkelet  until  we 
have  a  zigzag  effect.  This  portion  of  the  stem  is 
known  as  the  rachis.  There  is  but  a  single  splkelet 
at  each  joint  of  the  rachis,  and  these  splkelets  may  be 
closely  set  or  somewhat  apart  from  each  other.  This 
gives  quite  a  variation  betv/een  varieties,  since  some  are 
remarkably  compact,  while  others  are  very  loosely  con- 
structed. It  is  by  no  means  the  varieties  with  com- 
pact spikes  that  always  give  the  heavier  yields  of  grain, 
for  there  is  a  wide  variation  even  between  varieties 


FARM    CROPS.  141 

having  the  same  type  of  head.  Generally  speaking, 
the  spike  of  American  grown  wheat  will  average  about 
three  and  one-half  inches  in  length  and  contain  an 
average  of  forty  kernels. 

The  Grain. — A  wheat  grain  is  a  one-called,  dry 
fruit  with  a  thin  ripened  ovary  growing  together  with 
the  seed,  so  that  the  seed  and  pod  form  a  single  body. 
The  fruit  of  wheat  is  called  a  caryopsis.  In  shape  the 
wheat  kernel  is  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  slightly 
flattened  in  its  longest  dimension,  and  with  a  crease  or 
furrow  extending  laterally  on  the  side  opposite  the  em- 
bryo. The  grain  contains  a  relatively  small  embryo, 
and  a  very  large  development  of  endosperm. 

Bessey  *  gives  the  structure  of  a  wheat  grain  as  con- 
sisting of  the  (i)  ovary  wall  or  pericarp,  the  (2) 
outer  and  (3)  inner  integument,  the  (4)  nucellus, 
which  portions  are  usually  grouped  together  under  the 
common  name  of  bran,  the  (5)  aleurone  cells  also 
called  the  gluten  cells,  and  the  (6)  starch  cells. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  gives 
as  the  average  analysis  of  wheat : 

Water    10.5%       Fat    2.1% 

Crude   Fiber    1.8%       Protein    11.9% 

Ash     1.8%       Nitrogen    Free    Extract. .  .71.9% 

Unlike  oats,  wheat  when  ground  has  a  property, 
common  only  with  rye,  of  forming  a  sticky  dough  when 
mixed  wit;h  water.  This  is  due  to  the  gluten  con- 
tained in  the  grain,  which  gives  to  wheat  when  mixed 
with  yeast  its  value  for  making  light  bread. 

Wheat — Position. — Wheat  stands  third  of  the 
great  cereals  in  the  United  States  in  number  of  bushels 
produced.  In  value  of  crop,  however,  it  stands  sec- 
ond. In  1909  the  total  yield  of  wheat  in  the  United 
States  as  given  by  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  was  737,- 
189,000  bushels,  which  was  slightly  more  than  twenty 
per  cent,  of  the  total  crop  of  the  world.     The  average 

*  Bulletin  No.  32,  Nebraska  Experiment  Station. 


142 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


price  received  made  the  wheat  crop  for  the  United 
States  of  greater  value  than  the  oat  crop  by  more  than 
$324,000,000,  al- 
though the  oat  crop 
exceeded  the  wheat 
crop  by  more  than 
270,000,000  bushels. 

Wheat — Classifica- 
tion.— Wheat  has 
been  classified  by  dif- 
ferent writers  in  sev- 
eral ways.  Hackel  * 
divided  the  genus  into 
two  sections,  Aegilops 
and  Sitopyros,  and 
placed  all  the  culti- 
vated species  under 
the  last  section.  Un- 
der this  section  he 
then  places:  ( i )  Ein- 
korn,  (2)  Spelt,  (3) 
Emmer,  (4)  Com- 
mon or  Bread  Wheat, 
(5)  Club,  (6)  Pou- 
lard, (7)  Polish  and 
(8)  Durum  wheat, 
each  as  a  separate 
type. 

The  classification 
of  wheat  as  made 
by  Carleton  f  is  on 
a  wholly  different 
basis     than    that    of 

Hackel,  and  is  based  almost  wholly  on  the  char- 
acter of  the  grain  produced.  This  classification 
includes:    (i)    Soft,    (2)    Semi-hard,    (3)    Southern, 

*  The  True  Grasses,  Edward  Hackel. 

t  Bulletin  No.  24,  United  States  Department  Agriculture,  Divi- 
sion P&P. 


/ 

0     /a  /     a 

■■ 1 i 

f 

i 

D     a 

TYPICAL    HEADS   OF    FIVE    COMMON    VA- 
RIETIES  OF    BREAD    WHEAT. 

I,  Wheedling;  2,  Dawson  golden  chaff;  3,  Rudy 
4,  K.  B.  No.  2;  s.  Turkey  red. 


FARM    CROPS. 


143 


(4)    Hard   spring,    (5)    Hard  winter,    (6)    Durum, 
(7)  Irrigated  and  (8)  White  wheat. 

Wheat  is  also  often 
classified  as  spring  or 
winter,  depending 
upon  the  time  the 
seed  is  sown.  Spring 
sown  wheat  can  be 
transformed  into  a 
winter  sort  or  winter 
wheat  into  a  spring 
sown  sort  by  slowly 
adapting  each  to  cli- 
matic differences. 

Wheat  Improve- 
ment. —  Considerable 
work  has  already 
been  done  towards 
the  development  of 
wheat.  This  has 
taken  place  through 
three  avenues  of 
work:  (i)  By  selec- 
tion of  variation 
found  in  established 
varieties,  (2)  by  in- 
troduction of  foreign 
varieties,  (3) by  cross- 
ing two  or  more  va- 
rieties and  eliminat- 
ing all  but  the  desir- 
able hybrids  through 
subsequent  selection. 
Wheat  Seeding. — Wheat  seeding  differs  but  little 
from  that  of  oats.  The  use  of  the  grain  drill  is  more 
common,  and  in  general  the  seed  bed  is  more  carefully 
prepared,  but  aside  from  this  there  is  practically  no 
difference.  The  time  of  seeding  will  depend  more 
largely  on  climatic  conditions,  on  the  fertility  of  the 


; 

1 

i. 

B 

a 

1 

\ 

( 
1 

\ 

r 

TYPICAL    HEADS   OF    FIVE   COMMON    VA- 
RIETIES  OF    BREAD   WHEAT. 

6,  MalakofT;  7,  Pesterboden;  8,  Indiana  Swamp; 
9,  Fulcaster;  10,  Harvest  King. 


144  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

soil,  and  on  the  liability  of  insect  injury  than  is  true  of 
oats.  It  has  often  been  said,  and  quite  truly,  that  the 
earlier  and  better  the  seed  bed  is  prepared  the  later 
the  seeding  may  be  delayed. 

In  the  winter  wheat  belt  it  is  usual  to  seed  anywhere 
from  September  20  to  October  15,  depending  largely 
on  the  factors  already  stated.  In  the  spring  wheat 
areas  the  seeding  is  done  as  early  as  possible,  since 
results  secured  from  grain  so  seeded  are  superior  to 
those  of  later  sowing.  The  rate  of  seeding  will  vary 
as  greatly  as  does  the  type  of  wheat  sown.  A  seeding 
of  from  four  to  eight  pecks  per  acre,  with  a  strong 
tendency  toward  the  smaller  amount,  is  a  very  com- 
mon practice. 

Wheat  Harvesting. — The  harvesting  of  wheat  is  in 
no  way  different  from  that  of  oats,  with  the  exception 
that  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States  machines 
called  the  "  Combines  "  are  used  in  harvesting.  A 
"  Combine  "  is  simply  a  combination  of  a  harvester 
and  a  thresher,  so  that  both  operations  are  performed 
at  one  and  the  same  time. 

Wheat — Yield. — The  average  yield  per  acre  of 
wheat  is  far  less  than  that  of  oats.  The  general  aver- 
age in  the  United  States  for  the  past  ten  years  is  14 
bushels  per  acre,  while  England  has  averaged  32 
bushels  and  Germany  28  bushels  per  acre  during  the 
same  period.  That  the  yield  per  acre  can  be  greatly 
increased  by  a  better  preparation  of  the  seed-bed,  a 
more  careful  selection  of  varieties  and  a  systematic 
grading  of  the  seed  grain  has  been  demonstrated  by 
a  number  of  experiment  stations.  At  the  University 
of  Illinois  as  an  average  of  the  past  six  years,  and 
with  eleven  varieties  of  wheat,  the  average  yield  per 
acre  has  been  35  bushels.  This  yield  has  been  sur- 
passed by  a  number  of  farmers  throughout  the  state, 
some  of  whom  have  exceeded  50  bushels  per  acre. 

Wheat — Enemies. — Wheat  has  a  greater  number 
of  enemies  than  oats.  Of  the  weeds,  cheat  {Bromus 
secalinus)     and    cockle    {Agrostemma    githago)     are 


FARM    CROPS.  145 

probably  the  most  common  and  troublesome.  Among 
the  insect  enemies  are  the  Hessian  Fly  and  the  Chinch 
Bug.  Among  the  diseases  are  Rust  {Puccin'ta  gra- 
minis)y  Scab  {Fusarium  roseum)  and  the  Smuts — 
Stinking  (Tilletia  foetens),  Loose   {Ustilago  tritici) . 

Rye. 

Rye  is  one  of  the  cereals  which  differs  considerably 
from  those  already  described.  It  is  considerably 
taller,  more  slender  and  tougher  than  either  oats, 
wheat  or  barley.  It  is  said  also  that  rye  is  a  perennial 
plant  which  has  lost  this  character  under  cultivation. 
It  is  a  plant  more  closely  related  to  wheat  than  either 
oats  or  barley,  yet  differs  considerably  from  either. 
This  is  a  plant  better  adapted  to  poor  soils  than  oats 
or  wheat.  It  is  often  called  the  grain  of  poverty, 
because  of  its  ability  to  produce  a  fair  crop  on  land 
illy  adapted  for  the  other  cereals.  It  responds 
readily  to  good  soil  and  treatment,  however,  and  is 
doubtless  able  to  overcome  adverse  conditions  because 
of  its  different  rooting  habits. 

Rye — The  Roots. — Rye,  in  germinating,  throws 
out  a  whorl  of  four  temporary  roots  instead  of  three, 
as  with  the  plantlet  of  wheat,  oats  or  barley.  Rye  is 
enabled  therefore  to  stand  greater  extremes  of  tem- 
perature and  unfavorable  conditions  than  the  other 
crops.  It  is  commonly  considered  the  most  hardy  of 
this  group  of  cereals,  and  its  greater  root  development 
shows  at  least  one  reason  why  this  is  so.  The  per- 
manent roots  differ  but  little  from  those  of  the  other 
grains,  except  that  they  usually  ramify  the  soil  to 
greater  distances  and  to  greater  depths. 

Rye — The  Culm. — The  rye  culm  is  decidedly  more 
slender  in  comparison  to  its  length  than  the  other 
cereals  under  discussion.  It  is  too,  longer,  and  with  a 
tougher,  harsher  straw.  The  leaves  show  scarcely 
any  difference  from  those  of  wheat  with  the  exception 
of  being  narrower  and  of  greater  length.     When  the 


146  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

plant  is  young,  too,  the  leaves  more  commonly  are 
closely  recumbent  than  with  wheat. 

Rye — The  Head. — A  head  of  rye  Is  of  the  same 
general  structure  as  that  of  wheat.  It  is  also  known 
as  a  spike.  A  rye  spike  is  considerably  longer  than 
a  wheat  spike,  generally  averaging  not  less  than  5 
inches.  The  spikelets  are  joined  to  the  rachis  in  a 
more  open  formation  than  the  usual  wheat  spike 
shows,  and  in  number  vary  from  25  to  35  in  a  single 
head.  The  grain  is  longer  and  more  slender  than  a 
wheat  grain,  the  transverse  crease  is  less  clearly 
marked,  the  grain  is  more  pointed,  and  the  surface  is 
commonly  quite  wrinkled.  In  structure,  however,  the 
rye  and  wheat  grain  are  very  similar. 

Rye — Position. — Rye  occupies  a  position  fifth  In 
Importance  among  the  cereals  of  the  United  States. 
The  United  States,  however,  produces  but  a  small  per- 
centage of  the  total  crop  of  the  world.  Rye  is  the 
principal  grain  of  Russia  where  over  fifty  per  cent,  of 
the  total  yield  of  the  world  is  produced.  Rye  is  clas- 
sified only  as  spring  and  winter  varieties,  the  winter 
sort  being  the  one  usually  sown.  So  far  as  we  are 
able  to  learn  there  Is  no  systematic  attempt  at  Im- 
provement of  rye  either  through  selection  or  crossing. 
Rye  seeding  and  harvesting  differ  In  no  essential  par- 
ticular from  that  of  wheat.  The  yield  secured 
throughout  the  United  States  during  the  past  ten  years 
has  averaged  16  bushels  per  acre.  This  Is  far  too 
small  since  given  a  fertile  soil  and  careful  seed-bed 
preparation,  yields  of  30  to  35  bushels  are  not  uncom- 
mon. Rye  is  almost  wholly  free  from  Insect  enemies, 
except  such  as  will  attack  any  of  the  cereals.  The 
only  enemy  or  disease  peculiar  to  this  crop  Is  known 
as  ergot.  This  is  an  enlarged  and  peculiar  develop- 
ment of  the  grains.  It  is  readily  recognized,  and 
when  found,  the  grain  should  not  be  fed  to  animals 
or  eaten  by  persons. 


farm  crops.  147 

Barley. 

The  barley  plant  has  much  the  same  appearance 
and  habit  of  growth  as  wheat.  The  head  or  spike 
differs,  however,  and  the  general  height  of  the  plant 
Is  less.  It  Is  the  most  shallow  rooted  of  any  of  the 
four  cereals  discussed,  and  although  the  roots  usually 
grow  with  remarkable  rapidity  they  are  neither  vig- 
orous nor  long  lived.  The  barley  spike  varies  more 
than  the  spike  of  wheat  or  rye.  At  each  joint  of  the 
rachis  there  may  be  one,  two  or  three  spikelets  de- 
pending upon  the  type  of  barley  produced;  with  one 
spikelet  at  each  joint  the  barley  would  be  known  as 
two-rowed;  if  two  spikelets  are  present  it  becomes 
four-rowed,  and  if  three  are  found,  it  is  six-rowed 
barley.  We  have  therefore  barley  with  a  thin  flat- 
tened spike  or  with  a  spike  that  is  rather  square  and 
compact. 

Barley  is  further  characterized  by  being  almost  uni- 
versally bearded.  By  this  is  meant  that  the  flowering 
glume  is  prolonged  into  a  stiff  awn,  which  often 
reaches  a  length  of  six  or  more  inches.  This  char- 
acteristic renders  barley  a  disagreeable  crop  to  handle, 
since  these  beards  readily  break  off,  and  because  of 
their  sharp  points  and  barbed  edges  work  through  the 
clothing,  greatly  to  the  annoyance  of  those  handling 
the  crop.  Because  of  this  undesirable  feature,  there 
has  been  considerable  attention  given  to  the  produc- 
tion of  a  barley  free  from  these  annoying  beards. 
Until  recently  there  has  seemingly  been  nothing  of 
sufficient  merit  yet  developed  to  claim  any  great  atten- 
tion. The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
has,  however,  recently  succeeded  in  producing  a  true 
beardless  barley  that  promises  to  supersede  the  awned 
sorts.  The  Agronomist  in  charge  of  Barley  Inves- 
tigations reports:  "This  office  has  succeeded  in 
produsing  a  winter  barley  without  awns  which  is 
entirely  distinct  from  the  beardless  barley  now  culti- 
vated.    This  new  variety  is  a  selection  from  a  large 


148 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


number  of  hybrids.  The  beardless  varieties  now 
cultivated  bear  a  trifurcate  appendage,  the  central 
portion  of  which  is  hooded.  The  new  variety  is  en- 
tirely free  from  any  form  of  appendage." 

Barley,  in  addition  to  being  classified  as  two,  four 
and  six-rowed  is  farther  classed  as  winter  and  spring. 


BEARDLESS  BARLEY — DEVELOPED  BY  THE  U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF 
AGRICULTURE. 

a,  Side  view  of  head  of  new  awnless  body;  b,  separate  grains  and  a  spikelet  of  the 
same;  c,  front  view  of  the  head  of  same  barley;  d,  separate  grains  and  spikelet  of 
hooded  barley;  e,  head  of  hooded  barley. 


As  with  wheat,  spring  barley  may  be  converted  Into 
winter  or  winter  barley  Into  spring.  The  barley 
grain,  like  that  of  the  oats,  remains  enclosed  in  the 
hull  (flowering  glume  and  palea)  after  threshing. 
When  this  hull  Is  removed  the  kernel  resembles  that 
of  wheat.  Barley  Is  a  cereal  that  has  been  given  at- 
tention with  a  view  to  improvement,  second  only  to 


FARM    CROPS.  149 

wheat.  The  ends  sought  for  are  stiff  straw,  vigorous 
growth,  and  productive  varieties. 

In  seeding  barley,  the  first  requisite  is  a  thoroughly 
prepared  seed-bed.  The  root  system  of  this  cereal 
being  comparatively  feeble,  every  advantage  obtained 
through  good  preparation  Is  desirable.  In  spring 
sown  barley  early  seeding  Is  a  requisite  to  heavy 
yield.  The  rate  of  seeding  In  general  Is  eight  pecks 
per  acre,  although  barley  will  permit  of  thicker  seed- 
ing than  oats  or  wheat,  since  It  tillers  less  freely  than 
these  grains.  Harvesting  of  barley  differs  in  no  par- 
ticular from  that  of  oats  or  wheat.  Since  a  large  part 
of  the  barley  crop  is  used  for  malting,  greater  care 
should  be  exercised  in  handling  the  cut  grain. 

Barley  ranks  fourth  among  the  cereals  in  number 
of  bushels  of  grain  produced  In  the  United  States. 
The  grain,  however,  is  of  less  value  than  wheat  or  oats. 
In  yield  barley  has  averaged  a  trifle  above  twenty-five 
bushels  per  acre  for  the  past  ten  years.  This  yield 
is  far  too  low,  as  is  true  with  all  the  cereals  produced. 
Where  weather  conditions  are  favorable  and  where 
the  soil  conditions  are  made  as  agreeable  as  possible, 
yields  of  from  35  to  45  bushels  per  acre  are  not  In- 
frequent. 

The  insect  enemies  of  barley  are  those  commonly 
affecting  wheat.  However,  the  chinch  bug  is  more 
often  found  destructive  with  this  crop  than  with  wheat 
and  the  Hessian  fly  less  destructive.  The  diseases 
prevalent  with  barley  are  no  different  than  those  at- 
tacking wheat  or  oats. 


ISO  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Section  XXIII. — Sugar  Cane. 

By  Prof.  H.  P.  Agee, 
Asst.  Director  in  Charge,  Louisiana  Sugar  Experiment  Station. 

The  sugar  cane  is  one  of  the  grasses.  The  roots 
of  the  cane,  like  those  of  all  grasses,  are  fibrous  and 
extend  laterally  from  the  root  stock,  which  is  nothing 
more  than  the  close  jointed,  woody  underground  por- 
tion of  the  stalk  itself.  These  roots  are  fibrous  and 
delicate,  and  the  root  stock  is  not  of  sufficient  length 
to  give  material  support  to  the  stalk  which,  with  its 
heavy  weight,  is  often  uprooted  by  winds.  The  depth 
to  which  the  roots  penetrate  is  dependent  largely  upon 
the  texture  of  the  soil  and  the  level  of  the  ground 
water.  Instances  are  reported  of  roots  descending  to 
the  depth  of  five  to  ten  feet,  but  this  is  unusual. 

The  Stalk  of  the  cane  has  a  general  cylindrical  form 
and  varies  in  length  with  conditions  of  growth  and 
variety  from  three  to  four  feet  to  fifteen  or  eighteen. 
It  is  sometimes  erect,  but  more  often  crooked  on  ac- 
count of  bending  from  its  own  weight,  or  being  pros- 
trated by  wind.  The  diameter  of  the  stalk  varies 
from  one  to  three  inches  and  is  practically  uniform 
throughout  the  entire  length,  though  in  some  of  the 
varieties  there  is  a  slight  taper  from  the  base  upward. 
The  stalk  consists  of  nodes  and  internodes.  These 
internodes  or  sections  are  from  one  to  two  inches  in 
length  to  six  or  eight  inches,  and  occur  in  an  average 
cane  to  the  number  of  about  fifteen  to  twenty,  though 
when  short  and  crowded  together  there  are  often  as 
many  as  sixty  to  eighty.  The  rind  has  a  polished  ap- 
pearance, is  tough  and  thick,  and  according  to  variety 
is  colored  in  various  shades  and  mixtures  of  red,  pur- 
ple, green  and  yellow,  or  it  may  be  striped  or 
splotched  in  a  combination  of  these  colors.  The  color 
is  materially  affected  by  a  wax-like  covering  called 
"  cerosin,"  which  occurs  on  the  mature  joints.  This 
may  be  either  white  or  black. 


FARM   CROPS. 


151 


The  leaves  of  the  cane  are  alternate,  that  is,  they 
grow  from  every  other  node  of  the  stalk  at  opposite 
sides  of  the  cane.  They  are  long  and  narrow,  being 
about  three  feet  in  length  and  their  degree  of  erectness 
is  dependent  upon  the  varieties,  as  is  the  intensity  of 
their  green  color.  The  midrib  is  whitish  in  most  va- 
rieties, reddish  or  purplish  in  others.  It  is  well  de- 
veloped and  has  a  channel-like  depression  on  the  upper 


HARVESTING   SUGAR  CANE. 


side.  When  the  plant  is  immature  the  leaves  clasp 
the  stalk  tightly  and  recede  gradually  during  the 
growth,  and  finally  wither  and  drop  as  the  joint  to 
which  they  are  attached  matures. 

Bud  or  Eye  and  Seed. — At  each  node  under  the  base 
of  the  leaf  is  the  bud  or  eye  of  the  cane.  It  is  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  each  way  and  is,  according  to  va- 
riety, protruding  or  inconspicuous,  and  round,  oval  or 
triangular  in  shape.  It  is  covered  with  layers  of 
tough  protective  tissue.     Each  eye  is  a  new  cane  in 


152  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

embryo,  and  it  serves  in  planting  for  the  propagation 
of  the  new  crop.  It  was  long  thought  that  the  eye 
was  the  true  seed  of  the  plant,  but  it  was  proved  a 
number  of  years  ago  that  the  tassels  or  arrows  that 
the  canes  bear  do  not  consist  entirely  of  sterile  flow- 
ers, as  had  been  generally  believed.  Though  it  is  pos- 
sible to  germinate  a  small  percentage  of  these  seeds, 
it  is  only  with  great  difficulty,  and  it  is  impractical  to 
grow  cane  commercially  from  the  seed  of  the  tassel. 
They  serve  a  most  important  purpose,  however,  in  be- 
ing the  means  of  propagating  new  varieties. 

The  translucent  dots  around  the  stalk  at  the  eye  are 
embryotic  rootlets,  which  sprout  simultaneously  with 
the  eye  when  the  cane  is  planted  and  serve  to  furnish 
nourishment  to  the  young  cane  prior  to  the  develop- 
ment of  its  own  root  system. 

In  tropical  countries  at  the  approach  of  maturity  a 
certain  percentage  of  some  varieties  send  up  arrows 
or  tassels  bearing  flowers.  When  an  individual  floret 
is  examined  with  a  lens  it  is  found  to  have  three  sta- 
mens inserted  upon  the  ovary,  surmounted  by  two 
elongated  styles  with  terminal  feathery  stigmas.  The 
fact  that  most  of  the  resulting  seeds  are  infertile  is  no 
doubt  due  to  the  fact  that  cane  has  for  so  long  a  time 
been  reproduced  from  the  bud  or  eye. 

The  maximum  sucrose  content  is  generally  attained 
at  two  to  three  months  after  flowering,  after  which  a 
deterioration  sets  In. 

The  general  matrix  is  composed  of  pith  and  cells 
and  appears  hexagonal  as  seen  in  cross  section.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  inner  part  of  the  stalk  is  com- 
posed of  these  cells,  and  in  them  occur  the  sugar  and 
other  products  which  are  needed  for  the  future  use  of 
the  plant.  At  the  nodes  the  pith  almost  entirely  dis- 
appears, and  the  whole  tissue  is  made  up  of  bundles 
and  modified  pith  that  fills  the  space  between.  Dis- 
tributed through  the  pith  of  the  stalk  are  bundles  or 
tubes  of  a  fibrous  consistency.  These  run  parallel  and 
distinct  from  each  other  throughout  the  internode,  but 


FARM   CROPS.  153 

unite  at  the  node.  They  serve  the  function  of  con- 
veying the  water  from  the  root  to  the  leaf  carrying 
food  material  from  the  soil.  They  contain  no  sugar. 
The  elaborated  food  material  coming  from  the  leaf 
to  be  distributed  through  the  plant  is  conveyed  down- 
ward through  other  tubes.  The  remaining  tissues 
that  surround  these  tubes  or  bundles  are  mostly  of  a 
modified  fiber  and  serve  the  general  purpose  of 
strengthening  the  stalk. 

Sugar  Cane  Territory  of  the  United  States. — The 
sugar  cane  is  indigenous  to  tropical  environment  and 
thrives  most  luxuriantly  where  summer  heat  is  to  be 
had  throughout  the  year.  In  the  United  States,  there- 
fore, cane  culture  is  maintained  upon  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent status  than  elsewhere.  Nearly  all  of  it  is 
grown  in  Louisiana ;  Texas  produces  a  small  quantity, 
and  a  limited  amount  can  be  found  in  other  states  ad- 
jacent to  the  Gulf.  Louisiana,  though  lying  without 
the  tropics,  ranks  fourth  among  the  cane-growing  lo- 
calities of  the  world,  producing  annually  from  300,000 
to  350,000  tons  of  sugar. 

With  other  conditions  practically  ideal,  the  tem- 
peratures of  the  Louisiana  winters  are  too  low  to  be 
withstood  by  the  cane.  Hence  the  crop  is  a  forced  one 
and  the  growing  period  is  cut  short  by  the  necessity  of 
harvesting  when  the  plant  is  yet  immature.  The  pre- 
vailing methods  of  agriculture  have  been  especially  de- 
signed to  meet  this  contingency,  and  are  therefore 
unique  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  cane-producing 
countries  favored  with  a  twelve-month  growing  period. 

That  area  of  Louisiana  devoted  to  cane  lies  princi- 
pally along  the  banks  of  the  Mississippi  and  smaller 
rivers  and  bayous. 

The  Soil  is  the  rich  alluvial  formation  that  has  been 
deposited  by  these  streams.  At  the  time  of  high  water 
in  former  years  when  the  surrounding  country  was 
inundated,  the  deposit  was  greater  near  the  natural 
channels  of  the  streams,  and  as  a  result  the  cane  lands 
of  to-day,   though   nearly   flat,   have   a  gradual  slope 


154  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

from  the  river  or  bayous  back  toward  the  swamps. 
These  narrow  strips  of  land  are  protected  from  over- 
flow by  levees  on  the  banks  of  the  streams,  and  often 
by  additional  embankments  at  the  edge  of  the  swamps. 
These  levees  at  the  back  of  the  fields  have  from  time 
to  time  been  built  further  back  into  the  marsh  and 
swamp  lands,  and  much  reclamation  has  been  effected 
in  this  manner.  The  soil  may  be  classified  as  varying 
from  sandy  and  silty  loams  to  loamy  and  stiff  clays. 
The  following  chemical  analysis  may  be  considered  as 
fairly  representative  of  the  general  run  of  soils  of  the 
sugar  belt: 

Insoluble  matter 82 .  102% 

Potash 414% 

Soda 021% 

Lime 787% 

Magnesia 814% 

Iron  oxide 11. 280% 

Phosphoric  acid 161  % 

Sulphur  trioxide 019% 

Organic  matter 3 .  160% 

Nitrogen 112% 

Drainage. — The  annual  rainfall  is  about  sixty  inches 
and  irrigation  is  unnecessary,  though  it  would  prove 
beneficial  in  certain  periods  of  drought  that  occasion- 
ally occur.  A  greater  problem  with  which  the  planters 
must  contend  is  that  of  removing  the  excess  of  water. 
The  whole  method  of  cultivation  is  based  upon  estab- 
lishing proper  drainage.  The  cane  is  planted  on  ridged 
rows  from  nine  to  eighteen  inches  in  height.  Large 
drainage  ditches  occur  at  intervals  of  fifteen  to  twenty 
rows,  and  in  addition  there  are  quarter  drains  running 
at  right  angles  to  the  rows.  The  water  is  carried  by 
the  ditches  into  large  canals,  and  most  plantations  are 
provided  with  extensive  pumping  plants  to  remove  the 
water  from  the  canals. 

Cultivation. — It  is  perhaps  in  the  agricultural  prac- 
tices that  the  greatest  advance  has  been  effected.  The 
following  is  the  method  of  cultivation  employed. 
The  ground  is  thoroughly  prepared  by  deep  breaking 


FARM   CROPS.  155 

with  plows  of  the  disk  or  moldboard  type.  Rows 
from  five  to  seven  feet  wide  are  laid  off  and  thrown 
up  into  high  ridges.  These  ridges  are  opened  by  a 
double  moldboard  plow,  and  into  this  opened  furrow 
the  cane  stalks  are  placed  in  continuous  lines  and  cov- 
ered three  to  four  inches  by  means  of  the  plow.  (The 
entire  stalk  is  used  for  planting  instead  of  the  green 
top  as  is  the  general  practice  elsewhere.)  The  cane 
is  thus  protected  from  frosts,  and  in  early  spring  the 
earth  is  thrown  from  each  side  of  the  cane  by  plows, 
a  process  termed  "  off-barring,"  and  hoes  are  em- 
ployed to  remove  all  but  a  slight  covering  of  earth 
from  the  stalks.  Being  thus  left  on  a  narrow,  well- 
drained  ridge,  the  eyes  germinate  earlier  than  they 
otherwise  would.  After  the  cane  has  come  up  well, 
the  fertilizer  is  applied  and  the  earth  returned  to  the 
cane.  The  cultivation  from  that  time  on  is  carried  out 
by  means  of  the  disk  cultivator,  and  an  implement  to 
loosen  the  earth  in  the  middles  between  the  rows. 
This  treatment  is  carried  on  until  the  cane  has  reached 
a  sufficient  growth  to  render  the  continuance  of  the 
work  with  these  implements  no  longer  advisable. 
Hand  hoeing  is  resorted  to  in  removing  weeds  and 
grass  from  between  the  stools  of  cane. 

Harvesting  and  Planting. — There  are  as  yet  no 
harvesting  implements  in  commercial  use,  though  sev- 
eral have  been  patented,  and  work  is  under  way  to 
bring  them  to  the  degree  of  perfection  which  is  neces- 
sary for  their  adoption.  At  present  the  cane  is  cut 
by  hand  knives  and  it  is  a  laborious  process.  It  con- 
sists of  cutting  off  the  green  portion  at  the  top,  strip- 
ping the  leaves  from  the  stalk,  and  severing  it  at  the 
base. 

Many  of  the  plantations  are  now  using  mechanical 
loaders  to  place  the  cane  in  the  wagons  for  transpor- 
tation to  the  factory.  Hoists,  derricks,  and  devices 
of  various  types  are  employed  to  transfer  the  cane 
from  the  wagons  to  railroad  cars,  and  also  for  loading 
it  upon  the  carrier  at  the  factory,  and  hand  labor  is 


IS6  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

practically  eliminated  at  this  point.  In  the  event  of  a 
killing  frost  during  the  harvest  period,  the  cane  is  cut 
without  the  removal  of  the  leaves  and  tops,  preserved 
by  placing  in  windrows,  and  removed  as  the  needs  of 
the  factory  demand.  In  most  instances  an  effort  is 
made  to  do  as  much  of  the  planting  as  is  possible  be- 
fore the  grinding  season.  After  the  harvesting  begins 
labor  is  no  longer  available  for  planting  cane,  and  that 
cane  desired  for  further  planting  is  preserved  in  wind- 
rows covered  with  earth  for  early  spring  planting. 
It  is  the  usual  practice  to  grow  two  crops  of  cane : 
that  is,  plant  cane  (from  planted  stalks),  and  first 
year  stubble  (growth  from  the  live  underground  joints 
of  the  preceding  year's  crop),  and  then  to  produce  an 
intervening  crop  of  corn,  with  cowpeas  sown  between 
the  corn  rows,  before  replanting  cane.  This  crop  of 
corn  and  cowpeas  serves  as  a  soil  renovator,  and  at 
the  same  time  furnishes  necessary  feed  for  the  plan- 
tation mules. 

Fertilizers  are  applied  to  both  plant  and  stubble 
cane.  Those  most  commonly  used  are  cotton-seed 
meal  combined  with  acid  phosphate  and  tankage  alone. 
Application  of  500  pounds  to  750  pounds  to  the  acre 
is  practiced. 

Manufacture  of  Syrup,  Sugar  and  Molasses. — In 
no  industry  is  the  manufacture  more  closely  allied  to 
agriculture  than  in  sugar  making.  The  raw  mate- 
rial being  of  too  perishable  and  too  bulky  a  nature  to 
permit  of  its  distant  transportation,  the  plantation 
maintains  its  own  factory  or  else  sells  Its  production 
of  cane  to  a  nearby  central  factory.  The  cane  is 
ground  between  massive  rollers  which  bring  out  the 
juice.  The  juice  Is  treated  with  sulphur  and  after- 
wards with  lime,  and  is  then  heated.  It  Is  then  sepa- 
rated from  its  precipitated  impurities  by  decantatlon 
and  filtration,  after  which  it  Is  concentrated  by  boiling 
in  vacuum  apparatus  of  special  construction  until  it  is 
a  mass  of  sugar  and  molasses.  This  molasses  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  sugar  crystals  by  purging  in  high  speed 


FARM    CROPS. 


157 


centrifugal  machines  and  is  sold  as  such,  or  is  re- 
worked for  low  grade  sugars.  Syrup  is  the  juice  of 
the  cane  which  has  been  concentrated  without  the  re- 
moval of  sugar.  Some  of  the  smaller  places  are  en- 
tirely devoted  to  the  manufacture  of  syrup  for  table 
use. 

The  modern  sugar  factory  is  an  extensive  installa- 
tion of  machinery  and  requires  expert  technical  super- 
vision to  be  operated  to  best   advantage.     Some   of 


A   MODERN   SUGAR  FACTORY. 


these  plants  have  a  capacity  of  handling  over  a  thou- 
sand tons  of  cane  per  twenty-four  hours. 

The  average  yield  of  cane  in  Louisiana  is  about 
twenty-two  to  twenty-six  tons  to  the  acre.  A  ton  of 
cane  gives  an  average  of  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
pounds  of  sugar. 

Other  Sugar-cane  Producing  Countries. — The  lead- 
ing cane-producing  countries  are  Cuba,  Java  and  the 
Territory  of  Hawaii.  East  India  also  has  an  enor- 
mous production  which,  however,  is  consumed  locally. 
Mexico,  the  various  islands  of  the  Orient  and  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  many  of  the  countries  of  South  and 


158  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Central  America,  and  one  or  two  localities  in  Africa 
also  contribute  to  the  7,000,000  of  tons  of  cane  sugar 
that  is  furnished  annually  to  the  markets  of  the  world. 
As  would  be  expected,  widely  varying  systems  of 
agriculture  and  manufacture  prevail  in  the  production 
of  this  sugar.  For  instance,  in  some  sections  drain- 
age is  the  all-important  consideration,  while  in  others 
irrigation  is  necessary.  In  many  localities  the  meth- 
ods are  crude,  almost  primitive  in  character,  while  in 
other  places,  though  far  distant  from  the  centers  of 
civilization,  progressiveness  is  evidenced  by  steam 
plows  and  the  latest  implements  for  cultivation,  to- 
gether with  labor-saving  devices,  and  the  most  modern 
installations  for  converting  the  raw  material  into  mar- 
ketable products. 

Exercise. — If  sugar  cane  is  grown  in  the  section,  bring  stalks  of  as 
many  varieties  as  can  be  obtained  to  the  classroom  and  examine 
them  as  described  in  this  article. 

If  sugar  or  syrup  is  manufactured  in  the  neighborhood,  the  teacher 
should  take  the  class  out  to  such  a  place  and  require  the  pupils  to 
take  notes  of  harvesting,  planting,  fertilization,  and  manufacturing. 
For  information  on  sugar  cane  write  to  the  Louisiana  Experiment 
Station,  Baton  Rouge,  La. 


Section  XXIV. — Tobacco. 

By  Dr.  E.  H.  Jenkins, 
Director  Connecticut  Agricultural   Experiment  Station. 

Tobacco  belongs  to  the  night-shade  family  of  plants, 
which  includes  potatoes,  tomatoes  and  egg  plants,  and 
also  the  medicinal  or  poisonous  plants,  henbane,  and 
jimson  weed  or  stramonium. 

Tobacco  Plant  an  Annual. — The  tobacco  plant 
grows  from  five  to  nine  feet  high,  and  has  from  twenty 
to  thirty  large  leaves  and  white  or  pink  flowers  borne 
at  the  top  of  the  plant  and  on  a  few  side  shoots.  It 
grows  from  the  seed  and  matures  in  one  season,  being 
killed  by  frost.  The  leaves  only  are  used  in  com- 
merce. 


FARM   CROPS. 


159 


Importance  of  Tobacco. — It  Is  a  crop  like  tea  and 
coffee,  which  supplies  neither  food  nor  clothing,  but 
is  used  all  over  the  world  as  a  luxury  and  for  its  semi- 
medicinal  effects.  It  was  introduced  to  the  world 
from  this  continent.  Its  cultivation  and  export  were 
leading  industries  of  the  Virginia  settlers,  and  for  a 
time  it  was  used  among  them  as  money,  even  the  sala- 


SELECTED  TOBACCO   PLANTS. 


ries  of  clergymen  and  fines  for  violation  of  law  being 
fixed  at  so  many  pounds  of  tobacco.  In  Maryland 
it  was  made  a  legal  tender  by  statute. 

To-day  the  tobacco  crop  of  the  United  States  is  val- 
ued at  not  far  from  sixty  million  dollars,  and  Kentucky 
and  Virginia  produce  the  larger  part  of  it. 

The  tobacco  plant  will  mature  in  almost  any  part  of 
the  United  States,  but  it  can  be  grown  profitably  only 
in  certain  sections  where  climate  and  soil  are  both  suit- 
able. 


i6o 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Types. — There  are  six  quite  distinct  types  of  to- 
bacco grown  in  this  country: 

I.  Cigar  tobacco,  both  wrappers  and  fillers.  A 
cigar  is  made  up  of  a  filler,  which  gives  the  flavor  and 
furnishes  the  main  part  of  it;  a  binder,  which  is  rolled 
over  the  filler  and  holds  it  together,  and  the  wrapper, 
which  is  rolled  tightly  over  the  whole  and  gives  it  its 
finished    appearance.      Cigar    wrappers    are     raised 


bhlilNG    ULT   TOBACCO    PLANTS   BY   MACHINERY. 

chiefly  in  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  New  York  and 
Wisconsin;  also  in  Florida,  southern  Georgia  and 
Texas,  and  fillers  in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Ohio, 
and  the  extreme  Southern  States. 

2.  White  Burley  tobacco,   raised  in   Kentucky,  the 
leading  tobacco  growing  state. 

3.  Export  or  heavy  tobacco,  grown  mostly  in  the 
Middle  West. 

4.  Bright  yellow  tobacco,  peculiar  to  Virginia  and 
the  Carolinas. 


FARM   CROPS.  i6i 

5.  Suncured  tobacco,  raised  in  a  small  way  in  Vir- 
ginia. 

6.  Perique,  grown  only  in  a  single  parish  of  Louisi- 
ana. 

Planting  and  Growing. — The  methods  of  planting 
and  growing  the  differefit  types  are  much  alike,  but  the 
method  of  curing  is  different  for  each.  The  seed  is 
sown  in  beds,  which  are  protected  from  the  spring 
frost  by  glass  or  cotton  cloth  covers,  and  which  have  to 
be  carefully  watered,  weeded  and  aired. 

When  the  danger  of  frosts  is  past  and  the  land  is 
warm,  the  young  plants,  a  few  inches  high,  are  care- 
fully pulled  from  the  bed  and  transplanted  by  hand  or 
machine  into  the  field,  which  has  been  thoroughly  pre- 
pared by  plowing  and  harrowing,  and  often  by  liberal 
dressing  with  manure  or  fertilizers.  The  plants  are 
set  in  rows  from  three  to  four  feet  apart,  and  they 
stand  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches  apart  in  the 
row. 

The  land  is  cultivated  very  thoroughly  and  often, 
and  the  crop  protected  from  worms  of  various  kinds 
which  prey  upon  it. 

The  plants  are  not  allowed  to  blossom  and  produce 
seed,  for  this  would  take  the  strength  from  the  leaves, 
which  are  the  only  valuable  part  of  the  plant.  So  the 
flower  bud  is  broken  off  from  the  tip  of  every  plant  in 
the  field  soon  after  it  appears,  and  also  the  suckers  or 
side  branches,  which  begin  to  grow  as  soon  as  the 
flower  buds  are  taken  off. 

Harvesting. — When  the  best  leaves  on  the  plant  are 
ripe,  the  crop  is  harvested.  Sometimes  the  whole 
plant  is  cut  down  at  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
afterwards  strung  on  a  lath  which  is  thrust  through 
the  split  stalk,  five  or  six  plants  being  strung  on  a  lath, 
and  these  are  hung,  tops  down,  on  poles  fastened  in  the 
tobacco  barn  at  the  proper  distance  apart.  Another 
way  of  harvesting,  commonly  practiced  with  the  cigar 
wrapper  leaf,  is  to  pick  the  leaves  from  the  plants 
standing  in  the  field  as  they  ripen,  beginning  at  the 


i62  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


AN  EXCELLENT  TOBACCO  CROP. 


bottom.  Three  or  four  pickings  are  thus  made  at  in- 
tervals of  a  week  or  ten  days.  The  leaves,  carefully 
laid  in  baskets,  are  taken  to  the  barn  and  there  strung 
on  strings  attached  to  laths,  each  lath  carrying  about 
forty  leaves,  and  hung  up  in  the  barn  as  above  de- 
scribed. 

Curing. — When  the  barn  is  filled  with  tobacco  in 
this  way,  the  process  of  curing  begins.  This  requires 
more  care  and  skill  than  anything  else  connected  with 
the  crop. 

The  object  is  to  dry  out  the  leaf  gradually,  so  that 
it  will  "  come  to  color;  "  that  is,  will  get  the  charac- 
teristic colors  (yellow  or  brown)  which  cured  tobacco 
of  the  particular  kind  grown  should  have,  and  not  to 
let  the  fermentation  which  causes  this  change  go  too 
far,  making  the  leaf  too  dark.  If  the  barn  is  too  dry, 
the  leaf  dries  too  rapidly  to  get  the  right  color  and 
remains  green.  If  it  is  too  damp,  the  leaf  will  "  pole 
burn,"  become  discolored  and   rot.     Often   fires   are 


FARM   CROPS. 


163 


put  on  the  earth  floor  of  the  barn,  or  furnaces  outside 
the  barn,  with  flues  running  through  it,  are  used  to 
dry  the  leaf  when  the  air  outside  is  so  damp  as  to 
threaten  injury.  This  process  of  curing  takes  from 
three  to  six  weeks  in  the  case  of  cigar  wrapper  tobacco. 
Each  of  the  types  of  leaf  is  cured  differently,  but  the 
general  purpose  and  result  are  as  just  described. 

Sortitig  and  Grading. — W.hen  the  leaf  has  been 
properly  cured  it  is  very  brittle  if  dry,  and  cannot  be 
handled  until  it  becomes  damp  in  time  of  fog  or  rain. 
Then  the  leaves  which  have  become  soft  and  pliable 
are  broken  off  from  the  stalks,  or  the  strings  of  leaves 
are  cut  from  the  laths  which  held  them  and  are  bun- 
dled together  for  further  treatment.     All  kinds  of  to- 


EXPORT  TOBACCO. 
I,  English  olive-green  strips;  2,  olive-green  leaf;  3,  Austrian. 


i64  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

bacco  have  to  be  sorted,  to  put  by  themselves  the  dif- 
ferent grades  and  to  remove  damaged  and  inferior 
leaves,  and  in  addition  most  types  of  tobacco  have  to 
be  fermented  or  "  sweated,"  either  by  the  farmer  or 
the  dealer,  before  they  are  ready  to  be  manufactured. 
The  price  which  is  paid  for  the  leaf  when  ready  for 
manufacture  into  cigars,  cigarettes,  pipe  or  smoking 
tobacco,  chewing  tobacco,  or  snuff  ranges  from  a  few 
cents  to  three  or  four  dollars  per  pound,  depending  on 
the  uses  to  which  it  can  be  put  and  the  quality  of  the 
crop.  Much  depends  on  the  skill  with  which  the  crop 
is  grown,  curied  and  fermented. 

Note  for  the  Teacher. — If  tobacco  is  not  grown  in  your  locality, 
ask  the  pupils  if  they  have  ever  seen  this  crop  growing.  If  any  of 
them  are  familiar  with  tobacco,  have  one  of  them  explain  the  process 
of  planting,  cultivating,  harvesting  and  curing.  If  tobacco  is  grown 
in  the  neighborhood  the  class  should  be  taken  to  a  prosperous  farm 
and  the  crop  studied. 


Section  XXV. — Root  Crops, 
(a)  Mangels,  Irish  Potatoes,  Sugar  Beets,  Etc. 

By  J.  E.  Halligan, 
Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Experiment  Station. 

Root  crops  generally  include  those  plants  that  store 
up  their  food  in  a  thickened  stem  and  root.  The  food 
is  stored  in  the  stem  entirely  in  the  kohlrabi,  and  in 
the  cabbage  the  food  is  found  in  the  leaves.  Most  of 
this  class  of  plants  are  biennials  with  the  exception  of 
rape,  which  is  an  annual. 

These  crops  are  not  grown  as  extensively  in  America 
as  in  Europe.  In  Canada  they  are  more  popular  than 
in  the  United  States.  They  should  be  grown  more 
extensively  in  this  country  because  they  furnish  excel- 
lent feed  for  live-stock,  especially  for  dairy  cattle  and 
sheep.  They  are  succulent  and  seem  to  give  results 
much  above  what  their  chemical  composition  would 
indicate.     They  have  a  tonic  and  laxative  effect. 


FARM   CROPS. 


165 


STOCK  BEETS. 


According  to  Bulletin  243  of  the  Cornell  Experi- 
ment Station :  "  The  reason  why  the  production  of 
roots  is  of  special  interest  in  the  North  Atlantic  States 
is  that  these  states  raise  a  comparatively  large  amount 
of  roughage  and  a  small  amount  of  concentrates,  while 
the  North  Central  States  raise  a  large  amount  of  ce- 
reals or  concentrates  in  proportion  to  hay  and  forage, 
as  shown  in  the  following  table  which  gives  the  ratio 
of  concentrates  to  roughage  in  the  North  Atlantic  and 
North  Central  States  according  to  the  census  of  1900: 

North  North 

Atlantic  Central 

All  cereals,  except  wheat,  million  tons 4.4  69.2 

All  hay  and  forage,  million  tons 15.6  49.0 

Per  cent,  of  cereals,  except  wheat 22.0  58.5 

Tons  cereals,  except  wheat,  per  animal  unit 0.55  1.55 

Tons  hay  and  forage,  per  animal  unit 1.95  i.io 

Total  tons  of  food  per  animal  (of  about  i  ,000 

lbs.  live  weight) 2.50  2.65 


i66  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Roots  Contain  Much  Water. — "  One  of  the  objec- 
tions to  roots  as  a  food  product  lies  in  the  fact  of  their 
high  water  content.  This  limits  the  amount  which 
may  be  fed  and  becomes  of  special  importance  when 
they  are  fed  in  connection  with  silage.  On  account  of 
this  high  water  content  it  is  not  practicable  to  feed  a 
sufficient  amount  entirely  to  take  the  place  of  the  ce- 
reals, even  should  this  be  desirable  for  other  reasons. 
The  trend  of  experimental  evidence  is  that  the  feeding 
value  of  the  different  types  and  varieties  of  root  crops 
depends  more  largely  on  the  percentage  of  dry  matter 
than  on  any  other  factor;  for  example,  the  percentage 
of  dry  matter  apparently  modifies  their  feeding  value 
more  largely  than  the  percentage  of  sugar. 

Yield  of  Root  Crops. — "  The  following  table  shows 
the  minimum,  average  and  maximum  number  of 
pounds  of  dry  matter  per  acre  which  was  obtained  at 
the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  in  1904,  1905  and 
1906  from  sowings  made  during  May: 

Minimum  Average    Maximum 

Mangels 2,168  5,155  8,453 

Half-sugar  mangels 5,480  5,880  6,440 

Sugar  beets 6,014  7,090  8,090 

Rutabagas 3,537  4,331  5,079 

Hybrid  turnips 2,584  3,694  5,iil 

Common  turnips 1,710  2,680  3,500 

Kohlrabi 3,570  4,070  4,540 

Cabbages 4,076  4,662  5,588 

Carrots 1,878  3,134  4,379 

Parsnips 2,080  3,130  3,680 

"  The  estimated  yield  of  grain  from  flint  corn,  the 
same  seasons,  at  this  station  was  approximately  2,000 
pounds;  while  the  yield  of  dry  matter  in  silage  from 
dent  corn  was  about  four  thousand  pounds.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  season  of  1904  was  relatively  favorable 
to  the  production  of  roots  as  compared  to  Indian  corn, 
but  this  was  not  true  of  1905  and  1906.  In  the  latter 
years  the  average  yields  from  roots  were  better  than 
in  1904,  although  the  land  used  was  conceded  by  all 
interested  to  be  less  favorable  than  that  used  in  1904. 


FARM   CROPS.  167 

Roots  Versus  Cereals. — "  The  present  high  price  of 
cereals  is  a  factor  in  favor  of  the  production  of  root 
crops.  If  corn  meal  continues  to  be  worth  twenty 
dollars  a  ton  or  more,  economy  in  the  production  of 
roots  would  be  indicated,  while,  if  the  price  should  fall 
to  ten  dollars  a  ton,  corn  meal  would  probably  be  the 
cheaper  source  of  concentrates.  The  serious  handi- 
cap to  the  raising  of  root  crops  is  the  fact  that,  with 
present  cultural  methods,  a  large  amount  of  hand  labor 
is  required.  The  point  of  view  that  it  is  desired  here 
to  emphasize  is  that  while  roots  may  not  be  economi- 
cally raised  as  a  substitute  for  silage  or  other  coarse 
fodders,  it  may  be  economical  to  raise  them  as  a  partial 
substitute  for  concentrates,  particularly  the  cereal 
grains." 

Mangel  Wurzels,  often  called  mangels,  is  one  of 
the  most  popular  of  the  root  crops,  because  of  the 
large  yields  obtained  and  its  feeding  value.  Experi- 
ments show  that  mangels  give  better  returns  with 
dairy  cows  than  turnips,  carrots  or  sugar  beets. 

Varieties. — Some  of  the  principal  varieties  of  man- 
gel wurzels  are  the  Mammoth  Long  Red,  Golden  Tan- 
kard, Red  Globe  and  Yellow  Globe.  There  are  sev- 
eral varieties  of  mangel  wurzels  which  are  the  result 
of  crossing  with  the  sugar  beet,  and  are  called  half- 
sugar  mangel  wurzels.  According  to  Bulletin  244 
Cornell  Experiment  Station:  "Two  half-sugar  man- 
gels, Vilmorin  Half-sugar  Rosy  and  Carter  Half- 
sugar  are  recommended  as  suitable  stock  to  use  for 
breeding  American  strains.  Sugar  beets,  although 
rich  in  dry  matter,  are  generally  so  much  more  ex- 
pensive to  harvest  that  the  writers  are  not  prepared  to 
advocate  their  extensive  use  for  stock  feeding." 

Climate  and  Soil. — The  mangel  is  adapted  to  a  cool 
climate  and  a  moist  soil.  The  North  Atlantic  States 
are  especially  adapted  for  the  growing  of  mangels,  as 
the  season  is  short  and  the  corn  crop  is  uncertain  be- 
cause of  the  early  frost.  Root  crops  may  be  grown 
in  the  South  in  the  late  fall  or  winter  when  the  land  is 


1 68      FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

ordinarily  idle.  Mangels  stand  drought  better  than 
the  other  root  crops. 

A  loose,  deep,  rich,  well-drained  soil  is  necessary 
for  the  production  of  large  yields.  The  seed  bed 
should  be  free  from  lumps  as  the  young  seedlings  are 
tender  and  weak  and  cannot  well  penetrate  such  soil. 
It  is  generally  advisable  to  plow  very  deeply  in  prepar- 
ing the  seed  bed  for  this  crop,  as  such  practice  tends  to 
encourage  the  root  to  grow  under  the  surface  and  per- 
mits of  a  deeper  feeding  area. 

Fertilizers. — Most  root  crops  are  gross  feeders  and 
require  considerable  plant  food  in  available  forms. 
On  soils  deficient  in  organic  matter,  farm  manure  at 
the  rate  of  seven  to  ten  tons  per  acre  should  be  applied 
in  the  fall  and  supplemented  in  the  spring  at  planting 
time  with  three  hundred  to  five  hundred  pounds  of  a 
fertilizer  containing  8  to  lo  per  cent,  of  available  phos- 
phoric acid,  2.5  to  4.5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  4  to  6 
per  cent,  of  potash  in  the  form  of  sulphate.  The  ni- 
trogen should  be  supplied  from  nitrate  of  soda,  and 
some  quickly  available  organic  form  as  dried  blood. 
Green  manures,  such  as  some  leguminous  crop  plowed 
under,  may  be  substituted  for  the  farm  manure,  and  in 
such  substitution  the  nitrogen  content  in  the  fertilizer 
may  be  cut  down  somewhat.  On  rich  soils,  or  those 
containing  plenty  of  organic  matter,  the  fertilizer  as 
given  above  should  be  used  at  planting  time. 

Seeding  and  Planting. — From  six  to  eight  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre  is  recommended  for  mangels.  The  seed 
should  be  planted  in  rows  thirty  to  forty  inches  apart, 
in  May  in  the  North  and  in  September  or  early  Octo- 
ber in  the  far  South.  If  narrower  rows  are  used,  it  is 
necessary  to  cultivate  by  hand  labor,  which  increases 
the  expense  of  production.  The  plants  should  be 
thinned  to  a  distance  of  six  to  ten  inches,  depending  on 
the  variety,  as  soon  as  possible. 

Cultivation. — The  mangel,  as  well  as  some  of  the 
other  root  crops,  germinates  slowly,  and  for  such  crops 
it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  sow  a  small  amount  of 


FARM   CROPS.  169 

some  crop  that  germinates  quickly  to  mark  the  rows 
and  allow  of  early  cultivation.  Buckwheat  may  be 
used  for  this  purpose,  and  it  can  be  chopped  out  when 
the  plants  are  thinned.  Root  crops  should  be  culti- 
vated often  enough  to  keep  the  land  free  from  weeds 
and  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation. 

Yields. — Average  soils  should  produce  twenty  to 
forty  tons  of  mangels  per  acre.  The  following  table, 
the  work  of  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station,* 
shows  the  comparative  tonnage  and  nutrient  yields  of 
mangels  and  corn  forage: 


Containing  pounds  of     Mangels 

Weight  of  green  crop. . .  56,600 

Dry  matter 4,684 

Crude  fat 33.9 

Crude  fiber 379-2 

Crude  protein 684.9 

Crude  ash 503.7 

Carbohydrates 3,1 12.6 

It  is  shown  in  the  above  table  that  although  mangels 
produced  almost  three  times  as  much  tonnage  yield 
as  the  corn  forage,  they  only  produced  75  per  cent,  as 
much  dry  matter. 

Harvesting. — Root  crops  should  be  harvested  be- 
fore the  heavy  frosts  set  in.  They  should  be  dried 
and  stored  in  cool  cellars  where  the  temperature  Is 
such  that  they  will  not  freeze  or  become  too  warm. 
Sometimes  they  are  placed  in  pits  in  the  field  and  cov- 
ered with  earth  or  other  material  to  prevent  their 
freezing.  The  cellars  and  pits  should  be  dry,  well 
aired,  and  drained.  In  the  far  South  root  crops  may 
be  pulled  from  day  to  day  as  needed. 

Sugar  Beet. — This  crop  is  grown  quite  extensively 
for  the  production  of  sugar  in  this  country.  It  does 
best  in  a  zone  of  varying  width  in  the  center  of  which 
passes  the  Isothermal  line  of  70  degrees  Fahrenheit 

*  Voorhees — Forage  Crops. 


Corn 

Mangels 

Corn  Forage 

Forage 

increase 

increase 

20,000 

36,000 

6,130 

1,446 

152.2 

1 18.3 

1,484.7 

1,105.5 

468.9 

216.0 

243.8 

259-9 

3,780.2 

667.6 

170 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


for  the  months  of  June,  July  and  August.*  For  the 
year  1909,  4,081,382  tons  of  sugar  beets  were  worked 
which  produced  512,469  tons  of  sugar.  The  average 
yield  per  acre  of  beets  in  Germany  is  a  little  over  thir- 
teen tons,  while  in  the  United  States  it  is  almost  ten 
tons.  The  normal  width  between  the  rows  is  18 
inches  and  the  distance  between  the  plants  is  8  inches. 
The  ideal  weight  of  the  beet  is  two  pounds.  These 
figures  will  give  a  yield  of  43.3  tons  per  acre  with  a 
perfect  stand.     There  is  a  difference  of  33.3  tons  be- 


VENTILATOR . 


A   CROSS   SECTION   OF   AN   EASILY   CONSTRUCTED   PIT  FOR   ROOTS. 
Place  the  roots  upon  a  layer  of  straw  on  a  well-drained  location  and  cover  with  straw, 
then  soil,  then  a  second  layer  of  straw  and  a  second  layer  of  soil.    Then  place  a  thick 
layer  of  straw  or  coarse  horse  manure  on  the  outside.     Dig  a  drain  around  the  pit  to 
prevent  the  ground  becoming  water-logged. 

tween  our  production  and  the  ideal,  so  there  is  a 
great  chance  for  improvement  in  the  growing  of  this 
crop.f 

Requirements. — This  crop  requires  water,  sunlight 
and  a  rich  soil.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  is  about 
the  same  as  for  the  mangel.  Like  the  mangel  it  gets 
started  slowly  and  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  nitrate 
of  soda  and  acid  phosphate  applied  at  the  rate  of  100 
to  150  pounds  to  the  acre  is  very  helpful  in  giving  the 
sugar  beet  a  start.  About  sixteen  to  twenty  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre  are  required  for  a  good  stand.  The 
seed  should  be  planted  from   %   of  an  inch  to   i  ^ 

*  Farmers'  Bui.  52 — Revised. 

t  Report  No.  92,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


A   FIELD   OF    SUGAR   BEETS   GROWN    UNDER   IRRIGATION   IN    OREGON. 


FIELD   OF    SUGAR   BEETS   IN    UTAH. 


172 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


inches  deep;  the  depth  depending  upon  the  soil  mois- 
ture. Shallow  planting  is  preferable  when  there  is 
plenty  of  moisture. 

Time  to  Plant. — In  the  Eastern  States  and  through 
the  Mississippi  Valley  the  sugar  beet  is  planted  from 
April  to  early  June;  in  Utah,  Idaho,  Colorado  and 
Montana  about  two  to  three  weeks  earlier;  in  Cali- 
fornia from  November  15th  to  June  ist. 

Varieties. — For  sugar  the  Kleinwauzlebener  and  the 
Vilmorin  Improved  are  popular,  and  for  stock  beets 
the  Lane's  Improved  Imperial,  Danish  Improved, 
Queen  of  Denmark,  White  Green  Top  and  White 
Rose  Top  are  grown. 

Irrigation. — As  the  sugar  beet  is  often  grown  in 
regions  of  light  rainfall,  it  is  often  necessary  to  supply 
water  by  artificial  means  to  insure  a  profitable  crop. 

Water  should  never  be 
applied  to  this  crop  un- 
less it  absolutely  needs  it. 
During  dry  spells  the 
sugar  beet  sends  down  its 
tap  roots  to  the  lower 
soil  in  search  for  water, 
but  if  it  is  irrigated  it 
will  not  do  this  and  will 
possibly  suffer  should  a 
long  dry  spell  occur.  If 
beets  do  not  appear  wilted 
in  the  early  morning,  they 
should  not  be  supplied 
with  water. 

The  water  is  usually 
applied  in  the  rows  and 
at  such  times  as  neces- 
sary. Water  should  never 
be  applied  late  in  the 
season,  as  it  tends  to 
produce  growth  and  de- 
creases the  sugar  content. 


A   WELL-SHAPED   SUGAR   BEET. 


FARM   CROPS.  173 

Harvesting. — The  time  of  harvesting  varies  a  great 
deal,  depending  upon  the  time  of  planting.  Beets 
planted  from  April  to  June  are  ready  by  early  October, 
and  those  planted  in  November  and  December  should 
be  harvested  in  June  and  early  July.  The  harvest  pe- 
riod is  indicated  by  the  appearance  of  the  leaves,  which 
droop,  turn  yellow  and  many  of  them  wither  and  die. 

The  beets  are  harvested  by  loosening  with  a  turn 
plow,  the  share  of  which  cuts  off  the  beets  at  the  proper 
depth  and  throws  them  over  the  moldboard.  Some- 
times a  digger  is  used  which  consists  of  two  prongs  that 
run  deep  enough  to  cut  the  beet  below  the  middle  part. 
This  machine  is  only  suitable  when  the  rows  are 
straight  and  the  beets  uniform  in  size.  The  beets  are 
pulled  out  and  the  leaves  removed  by  means  of  a  sharp 
knife  with  hand  labor.* 

Turnips  and  Rutabagas  (Swedes,  or  Swedish  tur- 
nips).— These  crops  are  valuable  to  follow  some 
early  harvested  crop  as  potatoes  or  tomatoes.  In  this 
way  they  may  be  used  as  a  catch  crop.  They  are 
sown  either  in  the  drill,  30  to  36  inches  apart,  or 
broadcast.  When  sown  in  the  drill,  3  to  4  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre  will  suffice,  and  the  plants  should  be 
thinned  to  6  inches  and  well  cultivated.  For  broad- 
casting 4  to  6  pounds  of  seed  are  necessary.  Seeds 
should  be  sown  about  one-half  to  one  inch  deep,  de- 
pending on  the  amount  of  soil  moisture.  Turnips 
grow  more  quickly  than  rutabagas,  but  do  not  yield  or 
keep  so  well.  To  combine  the  quick  growing  of  the 
turnip  and  the  superior  keeping  and  yielding  qualities 
of  the  rutabagas  crosses  have  been  made  which  are 
called  hybrid  turnips.  These  crops  will  not  stand 
drought  as  well  as  mangels  and  are  not  able  to  secure 
plant  food  so  readily,  especially  phosphoric  acid.  Tur- 
nips should  yield  about  five  to  twenty  tons  per  acre  and 
rutabagas  ten  to  thirty  tons.  The  principal  varieties 
of  turnips  grown  for  feeding  are  the  Mammoth  Pur- 
ple Top  and  Improved  Green  Globe;  hybrid  turnips, 
*  Farmers'  Bui.  52. 


174  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Yellow  Aberdeen  and  Pioneer;  rutabagas,  Kangaroo 
and  Holborn  Elephant.  The  fertilizer  recommended 
for  mangels  is  satisfactory  for  these  crops,  although 
the  phosphoric  acid  may  be  increased  to  advantage. 

Carrots  are  valuable  to  supply  appetizing  food  for 
horses.  They  will  grow  on  poorer  soils  and  under 
more  varying  climatic  conditions  than  turnips  and 
mangels.  They  require  a  soil  well  prepared.  On 
account  of  their  slow  germination  they  should  be  fer- 
tilized to  stimulate  early  growth.  Rotted  manure  is 
more  desirable  than  fresh  manure.  The  seed  is  usu- 
ally planted  at  the  rate  of  6  to  8  pounds  per  acre,  in 
rows  1 8  to  30  inches  apart,  and  thinned  from  3  to  6 
inches.  They  yield  from  10  to  30  tons  per  acre. 
The  principal  varieties  are:  for  human  consumption, 
Vilmorin  Coreless  Long  Red,  Intermediate  and  Lane's 
Scarlet  Intermediate;  for  stock  feed,  Long  White, 
Long  Orange,  Orange  Giant  and  Yellow  Belgian. 

Kohlrabi. — This  is  not  strictly  a  root,  but  the  food 
is  stored  in  a  thickened  stem.  It  is  grown  for  stock 
feeding  and  does  well  wherever  rutabagas  thrive.  It 
should  be  cultivated  similarly  to  rutabagas.  In  sec- 
tions, as  in  the  Middle  West,  this  crop  is  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  rutabagas  as  the  latter  tend  to  produce 
poor  roots  and  large  necks.  The  advantages  of  kohl- 
rabi over  rutabagas  are  that  it  may  be  grown  on  a 
heavier  soil;  it  is  easily  pastured  because  its  thickened 
stem  grows  above  ground;  it  stands  drought,  warm 
climate  and  frost  better;  it  is  not  so  subject  to  dis- 
eases; it  is  not  so  apt  to  taint  milk.  Good  seed  is  hard 
to  obtain  and  is  more  expensive  than  rutabaga  seed. 
Some  of  the  principal  varieties  are  Short  Top  White, 
Carter  Model  and  Purple  and  White  Vienna. 

Cabbage  is  not  grown  for  stock  feeding  so  much 
in  this  country  as  in  Europe.  It  is  often  advisable  for 
the  farmer  to  grow  cabbage,  as  it  generally  brings  a 
good  market  price,  and  if  it  does  not,  it  may  be  fed 
to  live  stock.  It  is  not  as  good  as  other  root  crops 
for  feeding  because  it  is  more  difficult  to  keep,  it  re- 


FARM   CROPS.  175 

quires  more  plant  food  to  grow,  and  it  furnishes  less 
dry  matter.  The  cabbage  is  adapted  to  cool  moist  cli- 
mates, although  it  will  grow  under  a  variety  of  climatic 
conditions.  The  Northern  States  and  Canada  are 
adapted  for  its  growth. 

Soil  and  Fertilizer. — The  cabbage  may  be  raised  on 
all  types  of  soil  that  are  abundantly  supplied  with 
available  plant  food  and  water.  The  soil  should  be 
plowed  deeply  and  thoroughly  harrowed  to  insure  a 
loose  fine  seed  bed.  Farm  manure  at  the  rate  of  10 
to  15  tons  per  acre  should  be  applied  before  fall  plow- 
ing. In  the  spring  this  may  be  supplemented  with  an 
application  of  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  of  quicklime  and 
600  pounds  of  a  fertilizer  analyzing  4  to  5  per  cent. 
of  nitrogen,  7  to  9  per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric 
acid,  and  8  to  9  per  cent,  of  potash,  derived  from  ni- 
trate of  soda,  superphosphate  and  potash  salts  or 
wood  ashes. 

Seeding. — Seed  may  be  sown  in  the  field  in  3  feet 
rows,  during  early  May,  and  afterwards  thinned  from 

2  to  23/2    feet  when  they  have   reached  a  height  of 

3  to  4  inches.  About  ^  to  ^  of  a  pound  of  seed  per 
acre  is  sufficient  in  this  method  of  planting.  The  com- 
mercial growers  like  this  method  of  growing  cabbage. 

Resetting. — Many  of  the  smaller  growers  prefer  to 
grow  their  plants  in  a  greenhouse  or  hotbed  and  trans- 
plant the  young  plants  to  the  field.  If  transplanting 
is  favored,  the  plants  should  be  in  the  field  by  the  last 
of  May  or  the  first  of  June. 

Cultivating  and  Storing. — The  land  should  be  thor- 
oughly cultivated,  and  when  the  young  plants  are  back- 
ward an  application  of  50  to  75  pounds  of  nitrate 
of  soda  per  acre  will  help  to  produce  vigorous  growth. 
If  the  market  price  is  unsatisfactory,  cabbages  may  be 
stored  by  placing  them  with  their  stems  and  roots  on, 
head  down,  in  some  protected  spot  and  covered  with 
straw.  A  storage  house  is  of  course  preferable. 
Surehead  and  Autumn  King  are  varieties  that  have 
given  good  results. 


176  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Rape  is  being  widely  grown  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  part  of  the  United  States.  It  is  grown  in 
these  sections  for  a  soiling  crop  and  for  pasture.  It 
is  an  excellent  nutritious  and  succulent  feed.  It  re- 
quires a  rich,  deep  and  warm  sandy  or  loam  soil  for 
best  development.  It  is  best  adapted  to  cool,  moist 
climates,  but  it  also  does  well  in  the  semi-arid  regions 
of  this  country  when  irrigated.  It  stands  drought  as 
well  as  general  farm  crops  and  can  endure  frost  better 
than  turnips,  rutabagas  and  cabbage.  It  is  ready  to 
use  eight  to  ten  weeks  after  seeding  and  may  be  pas- 
tured or  cut  for  feed.  With  cattle  and  sheep  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  allow  them  too  much  when  they 
are  fed  it  first  as  it  may  cause  bloating.  It  does  not 
seem  to  cause  swine  to  bloat.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to 
accustom  cattle  and  sheep  to  rape  by  allowing  them  to 
pasture  it  a  little  each  day,  gradually  increasing  the 
length  of  time.  The  Dwarf  Essex  and  Giant  are 
popular  varieties. 

Soil  and  Seeding. — The  land  should  be  plowed 
deeply  in  the  fall  and  again  in  the  spring  when  neces- 
sary. In  the  spring  the  soil  should  be  harrowed  and 
the  land  put  in  a  fine  mellow  condition.  It  may  be 
fertilized  similar  to  cabbage.  Seeding  should  take 
place  in  the  Northern  States  from  May  25th  to  July 
20th,  and  in  the  Southern  States  during  September 
and  early  October.  The  seed  may  be  planted  in  drills 
at  the  rate  of  2  to  5  pounds  per  acre.  The  rows 
should  be  24  to  30  inches  apart.  Sometimes  it  is 
broadcasted.  Rape  makes  a  good  cover  crop,  as  it 
may  follow  early  maturing  crops  and  so  may  be  used  to 
advantage  in  rotations. 


Irish  Potatoes. 

Importance. — The  potato  crop  for  1909  was  367,- 
000,000  bushels,  which  was  worth  $212,000,000.  To 
fully  appreciate  the  value  of  this  crop  we  may  say  that 


FARM    CROPS.  177 

the  potato  crop  for  1909  was  worth  half  as  much  as 
the  oat  crop,  over  double  that  of  the  tobacco  crop,  al- 
most as  much  as  the  entire  sugar,  barley  and  flaxseed 
crops  taken  together,  and  nearly  five  times  as  much 
as  the  rice  and  rye  crops  combined.* 

The  potato  is  grown  in  every  state  and  territory  in 
the  United  States.  The  following  table  shows  the 
acreage  in  some  of  the  principal  potato  growing  states : 

Average  Yield  Farm  Value 

State  Acreage  Per  Acre  Per  Acre 

Bus.  Dec.  I,  1909 

Maine 130,000  225  $105 .  75 

New  York 438,000  120  60.00 

Pennsylvania 305,000  78  50-  70 

Ohio 182,000  93  52 .  08 

Illinois 164,000  91  55 .  51 

Michigan 348,000  105  36 .  75 

Wisconsin 262,000  102  38 .  76 

Minnesota 160,000  115  4025 

Iowa 145,000  89  48.95 

Nebraska 105,000  "78  46 .  80 

Soil. — Although  the  potato  is  grown  on  all  kinds 
of  soils  and  in  widely  varying  climates,  it  requires  for 

*  1909  Yearbook,   U.   S.   Dept.   of  Agriculture. 


-  :/ :*  :•.- i?S- ■   -^ 


POTATO-DIGGING    SCENE   IN    MAINE. 


178 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


best  development  a  light  well-drained  soil  that  will 
permit  free  spreading  of  the  growing  tubers.  A  moist 
though  not  wet  soil  well  supplied  with  decayed  organic 
matter  and  an  excess  of  available  plant  food,  so  that 
the  plant  will  always  have  what  it  needs,  is  desirable 
and  essential  for  best  results.  Heavy  soils  are  not  as 
suitable  as  light  friable  soils,  but  may  be  improved  by 
the  addition  of  organic  matter.     The  best  results  are 


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THE  BLACK   LINES    SHOW   WHERE    TO   CUT  WHEN    TUBERS  ARE    OF    THIS 
SIZE   AND    SHAPE. 


obtained  when  the  crop  is  grown  in  rotation.  In 
Maine,  where  the  production  per  acre  is  highest,  the 
following  rotation  is  popular: 

I  St  year,  potatoes. 

2nd  year,  grain,  sowed  to  clover. 

3rd  year,  clover,  which  is  plowed  under  in  the  fall 
and  followed  by  potatoes  the  next  spring. 

Whenever  sod  is  plowed  under  or  farm  manure 
applied,  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  organic 
matter  is  thoroughly  rotted  before  planting  time,  as 


FARM    CROPS.  179 

fresh  manure  or  sod  diminish  the  moisture  supply  and 
are  apt  to  favor  the  production  of  scabby  potatoes. 
Potatoes  may  follow  corn  which  has  been  heavily  fer- 
tilized with  green  or  farm  manure. 

Fertilizers. — Irish  potatoes  are  an  exhaustive  crop 
from  the  fertilizer  standpoint,  but  from  the  money 
value  viewpoint  they  are  less  exhaustive  than  the  small 
grains.  They  are  grown  as  an  early  and  a  late  crop 
in  the  North,  and  in  the  South  they  are  generally  most 
profitable  when  harvested  in  early  spring.  The 
early  crops  are  forced  with  heavy  fertilization,  while 
the  late  crops  are  allowed  to  grow  slowly  and  with  less 
fertilizer.  Potash  as  sulphate  seems  to  be  best,  as 
it  produces  more  uniform  potatoes  which  stand  stor- 
age better  than  when  fertilized  with  potash  in  the  form 
of  chloride.  For  early  potatoes  800  to  2,000  pounds 
per  acre  of  a  fertilizer  containing  plant  food  in  avail- 
able forms,  carrying  3  to  4  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  6  to 
8  per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  and  8  to  10 
per  cent,  of  potash  as  sulphate  is  recommended.  For 
late  potatoes  600  to  1,200  pounds  of  a  fertilizer  con- 
taining 2.5  to  3  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  6  to  8  per  cent, 
of  available  phosphoric  acid,  and  8  per  cent,  of  potash 
as  sulphate  is  desirable.  It  should  be  understood  that 
these  fertilizers  supplement  barnyard  manure  or  legu- 
minous green  manure.  The  fertilizers  should  be  ap- 
plied before  the  crop  is  planted,  and  covered  with  suffi- 
cient earth  to  prevent  injuring  the  tubers. 

Planting. — Experiments  show  that  vigorous  pota. 
toes  that  weigh  4  ounces  when  cut  in  half  are  the 
best.  Scabby  and  shriveled  potatoes  should  not  be 
used.  The  tubers  should  be  planted  in  rows  3  feet 
apart  and  15  inches  should  be  the  distance  between  the 
plants.  The  planting  may  be  accomplished  with  any 
of  the  modern  potato  planters.  In  level  culture  the 
seed  pieces  may  be  planted  at  a  depth  of  3  to  4  inches, 
while  in  ridge  culture  i  to  2  inches  is  deep  enough. 

Cultivation. — Potatoes  require  a  large  amount  of 
water    for   successful    growth    and    frequent    shallow 


l8o  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

cultivation  is  therefore  necessary  to  conserve  the  mois- 
ture and  keep  the  land  free  from  weeds.  In  ridge 
culture  a  horse  hoe  is  used,  and  in  level  culture  a  shal- 
low-toothed cultivator;  hence  level  culture  is  prefer- 
able for  conserving  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil 
and  protecting  the  roots. 

Harvesting  and  Storing. — When  the  vines  wilt  and 
die  the  potatoes  are  ready  to  dig.  For  early  potatoes 
the  size  of  the  tubers  regulates  the  time  of  digging, 
as  an  early  market  makes  a  great  difference  in  the 
farmers'  profits.  On  small  farms  hand  digging  with  a 
tined  fork  is  resorted  to,  while  on  large  areas  a  ma- 
chine called  the  potato  digger  is  used  with  good  suc- 
cess. In  harvesting  potatoes  great  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  injure  them.  Early  potatoes  in  particu- 
lar have  tender  skins  which  are  easily  bruised  by  care- 
less handling  and  such  injury  lowers  their  market  price. 
The  potatoes  should  not  be  exposed  any  more  than  is 
necessary  to  the  light.  In  storing  potatoes  a  low 
temperature  should  be  maintained.  Potatoes  will 
stand  a  temperature  of  33  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Too 
high  a  temperature  is  injurious,  as  it  causes  the  pota- 
toes to  sprout. 


{b)  Sweet  Potatoes,  Peanuts  and  Water- 
melons. 

By  Prof.  S.  E.  McClendon, 
Asst.  Director  Louisiana  State  Experiment  Station. 

I.  Sweet  Potatoes  are  well  adapted,  and  produce 
smoother  roots  of  medium  size  when  grown  on  well- 
drained,  loose,  sandy  soils.  If  the  lands  are  heavy 
and  very  rich,  with  an  abundance  of  moisture,  the  po- 
tatoes may  grow  excessively  large  and  be  of  inferior 
quality. 

Preparation  of  the  Land. — The  land  should  be  well 
prepared  before  planting.     After  the  slips   or  vines 


FARM   CROPS.  i8i 

are  set  out  the  crop  should  be  well  worked  to  keep 
down  all  weeds.  The  vines  grow  rapidly  and  should 
not  be  moved  more  than  is  necessary  in  hoeing  or 
cultivating. 

Poor  land  should  receive  an  application  of  organic 
matter  supplemented  with  fertilizer.  A  fertilizer 
furnishing  2.5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  7  per  cent,  of 
available  phosphoric  acid  and  8  per  cent,  of  potash,  in 
available  forms,  is  desirable. 

How  to  Plant. — The  potatoes  are  placed  in  a  bed 
made  up  of  good  soil  and  manure,  and  after  they  have 
sprouted  the  slips  are  pulled  and  transferred  to  the 
field.  For  early  potatoes  bedding  should  be  started 
as  soon  as  all  danger  of  heavy  frost  has  passed.  The 
slips  should  be  set  In  four  feet  rows  about  eighteen 
inches  apart.  The  vines  grow  rapidly,  and  in  a  few 
weeks  may  be  trimmed  and  the  cuttings  so  obtained 
planted  out.  The  season  in  which  potatoes  may  be 
planted,  especially  in  the  South,  is  quite  long,  as  a  good 
crop  may  be  produced  In  90  to  100  days. 

Harvesting. — In  digging  potatoes  place  them  in 
small  heaps  In  the  field.  These  heaps  should  be  scat- 
tered along  the  rows  to  insure  thorough  drying  be- 
fore storing  them.  Potatoes  should  be  handled  very 
carefully,  so  as  not  to  bruise  and  rub  the  skin  off. 
Bruised  potatoes  admit  the  germs  which  cause  rotting. 

Storing  and  Preservation. — Potatoes  may  be  kept  in 
banks  of  earth  or  pits;  but  perhaps  potato  houses 
are  more  satisfactory.  When  banked,  a  well-drained 
spot  is  desirable.  Some  straw  or  hay  should  be 
placed  upon  the  ground,  and  the  potatoes  should  be 
piled  In  heaps.  After  the  heaps  are  built  to  the  de- 
sired size,  a  thin  layer  of  straw,  hay,  or  corn  stalks 
is  placed  over  the  potatoes.  Then  this  is  partly  cov- 
ered with  earth,  leaving  the  tip  of  the  heap  exposed 
for  ventilation.  Before  freezing  weather  this  tip 
should  also  be  covered.  Potatoes  keep  well  this  way 
until  spring,  when  they  begin  to  sprout. 

Storage  House. — If  a  large  acreage  is  planted,   a 


l82  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

house  should  be  built  for  storing  the  crop.  A  conve- 
nient structure  may  be  built  the  desired  size,  with  dou- 
ble walls  which  are  filled  in  with  sawdust.  This  house 
should  be  provided  with  ventilators  that  may  be 
opened  and  closed  according  to  weather  conditions. 

Varieties. — The  Dooley  Yam  and  the  Sugar  Yam 
are  popular  varieties  for  Southern  table  use.  These 
potatoes  are  soft  and  sweet  when  cooked.  The 
Northern  market  demands  a  firm,  mealy  potato.  The 
Southern  Queen  and  similar  varieties  are  desirable 
for  stock. 

2.  Peanuts. — A  light  sandy  loam  soil,  well  drained, 
with  an  abundance  of  lime,  is  best  adapted  for  growing 
peanuts  commercially. 

A  Rotation  Crop. — When  grown  in  a  well-planned 
rotation  and  following  a  crop  where  clean  culture  has 
been  practiced,  the  peanut  becomes  an  important  and 
profitable  crop.  The  peanut  should  be  placed  in  ro- 
tation so  as  to  occupy  the  land  between  a  spring  ma- 
turing crop  and  one  that  is  to  be  planted  early  in  the 
fall.  This  crop  is  well  adapted  to  a  system  in  which 
intensive  farming  is  practiced. 

Preparation  of  the  Land. — The  land  should  be  well 
prepared.  On  poorly  drained  land  the  rows  should 
be  slightly  ridged  to  keep  the  plant  above  water.  If 
fertilizer  is  necessary  a  mixture  containing  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  is  desirable.  The  peanut  being  a  le- 
gume obtains  all  the  nitrogen  it  needs  from  the  air. 

How  to  Plant. — Peanuts  germinate  earlier  and  bet- 
ter if  shelled  before  planting.  The  inferior  kernels 
can  be  discarded  when  the  nuts  are  shelled,  thus  insur- 
ing a  better  stand.  If  the  whole  nuts  are  planted, 
germination  is  hastened  by  soaking  them  in  water  for 
twenty-four  hours  before  planting.  The  quantity  of 
seed  required  to  plant  an  acre  will  depend  somewhat 
upon  the  variety,  distance  of  rows  and  the  distance 
the  nuts  are  dropped  in  the  drill.  Usually  ^  to  i 
bushel  of  shelled  and  2  bushels  of  unshelled  nuts  are 
planted  per  acre. 


FARM    CROPS. 


183 


PEANUTS. 


Cultivation  and  Harvesting. — Th 
for  cotton  and  corn  may  be  utilized 
crop.  Frequent  shallow  cultivation 
As  soon  as  the  nuts  have  ripened,  the 
put  in  shocks  and  thoroughly  cured. 
70  bushels  is  good.  The  Spanish  va 
to  harvest,  as  the  nuts  cling  to  the 


e  cultivators  used 
in  cultivating  this 

is  recommended, 
peanuts  should  be 

A  yield  of  50  to 
riety  is  the  easiest 
vine  when  pulled. 


l84  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

As  a  Pasture  Crop. — Peanuts  are  also  used  as  a 
pasture  crop  for  hogs,  allowing  the  hogs  to  gather  the 
crop. 

The  peanut  is  an  important  commercial  crop  in 
North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  and  North 
Louisiana. 

3.  Watermelons  do  best  on  sandy  well-drained  soils. 
The  hilly  lands  of  the  Southern  States,  when  made 
very  rich,  are  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  melons. 

Preparation  of  the  Land. — The  land  should  be  put 
in  good  condition.  If  stable  manure  is  used,  it  should 
be  distributed  some  time  before  planting  and  allowed 
to  rot.  Two  shovelfuls  of  a  compost,  made  of  stable 
manure,  cotton-seed  meal  and  acid  phosphate,  applied 
under  each  hill  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil,  will 
prove  beneficial.  If  this  is  not  available,  a  mixture  of 
500  to  600  pounds  of  equal  parts  of  cotton-seed  meal 
and  acid  phosphate  applied  broadcast  is  sufficient  per 
acre.     The  rows  should  be  marked  off  10  feet  wide. 

Cultivation. — Shallow  and  frequent  cultivation  is 
best,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  vines.  When 
cultivating  the  last  time  cowpeas  may  be  planted  be- 
tween the  rows,  which  will  improve  the  soil  and  pre- 
vent the  vine  from  sunburning.  On  account  of  dis- 
eases melons  should  not  be  planted  on  the  same  land 
two  years  in  succession. 

How  to  Grow  Large  Melons. — Very  large  melons 
may  be  grown  by  selecting  two  or  three  of  the  best 
from  each  hill,  keeping  the  others  cut  off.  Melons 
weighing  60  pounds  will  readily  sell  for  40  or  50  cents, 
when  20-pound  melons  will  be  hard  to  sell  at  10  cents 
each. 

Watermelons  are  an  important  commercial  crop  in 
many  sections;  thousands  of  carloads  are  shipped  to 
the  markets  during  the  season.  Watermelons  for  the 
market  must  have  a  strong  firm  rind. 

Exercise. — Name  some  of  the  root  crops  grown  in  your  locality. 
Give  the  tonnage  per  acre.  State  the  methods  used  for  storing  them. 
Bring  an  Irish  and  a  sweet  potato  to  the  classroom  and  note  the 


FARM    CROPS.  185 

difference  in  their  structure.  Which  is  a  true  root  and  why?  What 
varieties  of  sweet  potatoes  are  grown  in  your  section  and  what  is 
the  average  yield?  Why  does  the  Spanish  peanut  cling  to  the  plant 
so  well  when  pulled?  Is  the  Spanish  a  running  variety?  Which 
way  do  the  most  successful  peanut  growers  plant  their  nuts,  shelled 
or  unshelled?  Bring  nuts  of  as  many  varieties  as  possible  to  school 
and  note  their  difference.  Are  there  any  nodules  on  the  roots  of 
peanuts?  Which  varieties  of  watermelons  are  the  best  eating,  home 
varieties  or  market  varieties?    Why? 


Section  XXVL — Forage  Crops. 

By  Prof.  C.  V.  Piper, 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Forage  crops  Include  all  plants  cultivated  to  produce 
food  for  farm  animals,  especially  where  the  whole 
plant  Is  thus  used.  They  may  be  utilized  in  various 
ways,  namely,  as  soiling  crops,  ensilage,  pasturage 
and  hay  or  fodder.  Some  forage  crops  are  used  in 
only  one  way,  others  in  two  or  more. 

Soiling  Crops. — A  soiling  crop  is  any  forage  plant 
that  is  cut  and  fed  green  to  animals.  Some  forage 
crops,  like  kale  and  Japanese  sugar  cane,  are  fed  wholly 
or  mainly  in  this  manner,  but  practically  any  forage 
crop  can  be  thus  utilized.  It  is  possible,  especially  in 
portions  of  the  country  where  the  winters  are  mild,  to 
provide  a  series  of  such  crops  so  that  cows  can  have 
green  feed  the  year  around.  Such  a  system  of  feeding 
is  rarely  practiced,  however,  owing  to  the  large  amount 
of  labor  necessitated.  An  exceedingly  desirable  char- 
acteristic in  a  soiling  crop  is  its  ability  to  grow  again 
from  the  root  after  being  cut.  For  this  purpose  such 
plants  as  teosinte,  pearl  millet  and  Guinea  grass  are 
particularly  useful  in  the  South. 

Ensilage. — For  a  description  of  this  consult  the 
chapter  on  Feeds  and  Feeding. 

Pasturage. — Any  forage  crop  that  is  harvested  by 
the  animals  feeding  on  it  in  the  field  is  said  to  be  pas- 
tured. The  term  pasture  is,  however,  usually  applied 
to  fields  of  more  or  less  permanent  character  where 


i86 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


cattle  are  allowed  to  graze.  Such  fields  are  usually 
planted  in  perennial  grasses  and  legumes,  so  that  they 
are  productive  for  at  least  two  or  three  years.  Good 
pastures  are  a  very  useful  adjunct  to  the  farm,  because 
animals  can  be  fed  much  more  cheaply  in  this  way  than 
in  any  other. 

Hay  is  any  forage  crop  after  it  is  cut  and  cured  or 
dried  for  feed.  When  the  plant  dried  is  very  coarse, 
for  example,  corn,  the  hay  is  commonly  called  fodder. 
Grasses  are  more  frequently  used  for  hay  than  any 
other  plants,  because  they  cure  or  dry  readily.     More 


HUNGARIAN,  OR  AWN-        RED  TOP,  OR  HERD  S        TALL   MEADOW   OAT 
LESS  BROME  GRASS.  GRASS.  GRASS. 

succulent  plants,  like  cowpeas,  are  also  grown  for 
hay,  but  they  are  difficult  to  cure  unless  the  weather  is 
very  favorable.  Where  perennial  grasses  are  grown 
for  hay,  the  field  is  often  retained  for  two  or  more 
years.  Such  fields  are  termed  meadows.  It  is  not 
an  uncommon  practice  to  utilize  the  same  field  both  as 
a  meadow  for  hay  and  after  the  hay  crop  is  removed 
to  use  it  as  a  pasture. 

Classes  of  Forage  Crops. — About  fifty  different 
kinds  of  plants  are  cultivated  in  the  United  States  pri- 
marily for  forage  purposes.      Most  of  these  belong 


FARM    CROPS.  187 

to  the  grass  family,  which  also  contains  our  principal 
cereals.  Next  in  importance  to  the  grasses  are  the 
legumes,  plants  like  clovers,  alfalfa,  cowpeas,  peanuts, 
soy  beans  and  velvet  beans,  all  of  which  are  able  to 
use  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  which  most  plants  cannot 
obtain.  Outside  of  these  two  plant  families  there  are 
few  important  forage  crops,  perhaps  the  most  valua- 
ble being  rape  and  kale  of  the  cabbage  family  and 
mangels  of  the  beet  family. 

Characteristics  of  Forage  Plants. — In  both  grasses 
and  legumes,  as  well  as  other  forage  crops,  there  are 
parennials,  living  for  several  or  many  years,  as  well  as 
annuals,  which  live  for  only  one  year  or  season.  Some 
annuals  are  adapted  for  growing  only  in  the  summer, 
others  for  growing  in  the  winter.  Perennial  forage 
crops  are  especially  used  in  permanent  meadows  and 
pastures.  The  most  valuable  for  this  purpose  are  not 
only  palatable  and  nutritious  but  able  to  occupy  the 
ground  against  weeds,  and  in  the  case  of  pasture 
grasses  to  withstand  continual  trampling  and  close 
cropping.  Some  indeed  occupy  the  ground  so  tena- 
ciously that  they  become  more  or  less  troublesome  as 
weeds,  such  as  Johnson  grass  and  Bermuda  grass.  A 
few  annual  forage  plants  reseed  themselves  readily, 
such  as  crab  grass,  lespedeza  and  bur  clover. 

Perennial  Grasses. — The  more  important  peren- 
nial forage  grasses  are  timothy,  Kentucky  blue  grass, 
Bermuda,  orchard  grass,  redtop,  tall  meadow  oat 
grass,  Johnson  grass,  brome  grass,  meadow  fescue, 
carpet  grass  and  Para  grass. 

Annual  Grasses. — Among  the  annual  grasses  used 
for  hay,  besides  such  small  grains  as  oats,  wheat,  bar- 
ley and  rye,  are  the  millets,  rescue  grass,  crab  grass 
and  cheat.  Here  also  might  be  included  the  coarser 
grasses,  such  as  the  sorghums,  pearl  millet  and  teo- 
sinte. 

Perennial  Legumes. — Practically  the  only  perennial 
legumes  grown  on  American  farms  are  alfalfa  and  the 
clovers,  red,  white  and  alsike. 


l88  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Annual  Legumes  constitute  a  much  more  important 
crop  in  the  Southern  States  than  elsewhere.  Among 
the  important  ones  for  summer  crops  are  cowpeas,  soy 
beans,  velvet  beans  and  lespedeza;  for  winter  crops 
crimson  clover,  vetches  and  bur  clover.  In  the  North 
and  West,  Canada  peas  are  by  far  the  most  important 
crop  of  this  group. 

Origin  of  Our  Forage  Crops. — It  is  an  interesting 
fact  that  most  of  the  forage  crops  grown  in  the  United 
States  are  native  to  the  Old  World.  This  is  the  case 
almost  without  exception  of  plants  which  are  broad- 
casted thickly,  as  in  meadows  and  pastures  where  the 
plants  have  to  occupy  the  ground  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  plants.  Most  American  grasses  lack  sufficient 
aggressiveness  to  be  thus  utilized.  On  the  other  hand 
some  of  the  most  important  of  American  crops  are 
natives  of  America,  but  these,  without  exception,  need 
to  be  cultivated  so  as  to  protect  them  against  weeds. 
Among  such  crops  are  corn,  tobacco,  cotton,  potatoes, 
sweet  potatoes,  beans  and  others.  While  the  aggres- 
siveness of  many  Old  World  plants  makes  them  invalu- 
able for  forage,  it  also  makes  others  very  troublesome 
as  weeds,  nearly  all  of  our  worst  weeds  having  come 
to  us  from  the  Old  World. 

Meadow  Mixtures. — Mixtures  of  forage  crops  in 
permanent  meadows  often  give  much  better  results 
than  pure  cultures. 

I.  In  the  Northern  States  the  most  commonly 
grown  hay  mixture  consists  of  timothy  and  red  clover. 
2.  South  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  Rivers  timothy  and 
clover  do  not  as  a  rule  give  satisfaction.  Here  a  mix- 
ture of  12  pounds  of  orchard  grass,  12  pounds  of  tall 
meadow  oat  grass  and  6  pounds  of  alsike  clover  is 
much  more  satisfactory.  3.  It  is  frequently  desirable 
to  plant  low-lying,  poorly  drained  lands  into  a  perma- 
nent meadow  or  pasture.  In  general,  the  best  com- 
bination for  this  purpose  is  redtop  and  alsike  clover. 

Pasture  Mixtures. — Mixtures  of  forage  plants  for 
pastures  are  desirable  not  only  to  keep  down  weeds, 


RED    CLOVER. 


190 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


but  also  because  the  different  plants  in  the  mixture 
grow  best  at  different  times  of  the  year,  some  grow- 
ing best  in  early  spring  and  fall,  others  in  midsummer. 
I.  In  the  North  the  best  pastures  consist  largely  of 
Kentucky  blue  grass  and  white  clover.  2.  In  the 
South  several  different  combinations  of  plants  go  to 
make  up  permanent  pastures;  Bermuda  grass,  bur  and 
white  clovers;  redtop,  white  clover  and  Kentucky  blue 
grass  as  winter  pasturage ;  the  summer  plants  often  in- 
clude lespedeza,  paspalum  and  Bermuda.  In  the  ex- 
treme South,  where  carpet  grass  is  abundant,  lespe- 
deza frequently  grows  with  it. 

Exercise. — In  what  ways  are  the  forage  crops  of  your  region 
utilized?  Make  a  list  of  the  soiling  crops  grown  in  your  neighbor- 
hood. How  often  are  your  pastures  planted?  Which  are  the  more 
common  at  your  home,  pastures  or  meadows?  Why?  What  grasses 
and  legumes  make  the  best  pastures  and  meadows  for  your  section? 
Make  a  list  of  the  annual  and  perennial  grasses  and  legumes  that  are 
common  in  your  section  of  the  country. 


Section  XXVII 


-Some  Important  Forage 
Plants. 


Timothy  is  a  native  of  Europe, 
but  it  first  became  important  as  a 
cultivated  grass  in  the  United  States. 
In  this  country  it  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  the  hay  grasses,  the 
bulk  of  the  hay  sold  in  the  city 
markets  being  composed  of  this 
grass,  either  pure  or  mixed  with 
red  clover.  The  popularity  of 
timothy  depends  not  only  on  its 
high  value  as  horse  feed,  but  also 
on  the  cheapness  of  the  seed  and 
TIMOTHY.  the   ease   with   which  it   is   grown. 

Fifteen   pounds    is    sown   per   acre 
combination  with  red  clover. 

Red  Clover. — Scarcely  less  important  than  timothy 
red  clover,  which  also  is  a  natfve  of  Europe.     It  is 


FARM    CROPS. 


191 


grown  almost  entirely  in 
combination  with  timothy. 
The  plant  is  a  short-lived 
perennial,  rarely  living 
more  than  two  years. 
Eight  pounds  of  seed 
when  grown  with  timothy 
is  used  per  acre. 

Alfalfa. — This  is  the 
great  forage  crop  of  the 
West,  especially  on  irri- 
gated lands,  though  in 
late  years  it  has  been 
grown  in  a  constantly  in- 
creasing area  on  non- 
irrigated  lands.  Alfalfa 
is  a  native  of  Asia  and 
was  first  introduced  into  New  York  about  1791  and 
into  California  about  1851,  At  the  northernmost  limit 
of  its  growth  two  or  three  cuttings  a  year  can  be  ob- 
tained, while  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Cali- 
fornia eight  or  nine  cuttings  may  be  secured.     Alfalfa 


AN   ALFALFA   PLANT. 


A    IIELU    Ul'     ALIALI'A. 


192 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


is  primarily  adapted  to  a  region  where  the  air  is  dry, 
and  under  such  conditions,  as  in  our  West,  thrives  liice 
a  weed.  In  the  more  humid  sections  of  the  East  and 
South,  however,  alfalfa  thrives  well  only  when  the  soil 

is  deep,  well  drained  and 
contains  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  lime.  On  this  ac- 
count it  has  become  im- 
portant mainly  on  soils 
of  limestone  origin.  On 
such  soils  it  will  far  out- 
yield  any  other  perennial 
forage  crop. 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass  in 
its  commonly  cultivated 
form  is  a  native  of  Eu- 
rope; various  forms  of  it 
are  native  in  America,  but 
these  did  not  occur  origi- 
nally in  the  region  where 
blue  grass  is  now  im- 
portant. Blue  grass  is 
adapted  to  almost  iden- 
tically the  same  area  as 
timothy,  though  as  a  lawn 
grass  it  is  grown  much 
farther  south.  It  thrives 
especially  on  limestone 
soils,  and  it  is  such  soils  as  these  that  constitute  the 
famous  blue  grass  region  of  Kentucky.  Blue  grass 
pasture  is  exceedingly  palatable  and  live-stock  prefer 
it  to  nearly  all  other  grasses. 

Bermuda  Grass  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  supposed 
to  have  been  introduced  into  this  country  in  18 12.  It 
now  occurs  throughout  the  Southern  States  and  thrives 
fairly  well  as  far  north  as  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
Central  Kansas.  It  requires  hot  summer  weather,  and 
grows  then  with  great  rapidity  on  good  soil,  reaching  a 
height  of  18  inches.     It  makes  a  dense  mass  so  that 


KENTUCKY   BLUE   GRASS. 


FARM    CROPS.  193 

the  yield  of  hay  per  acre  Is  heavy  and  two  or  more 
cuttings  can  be  made  during  a  single  season.  It  re- 
quires a  dry  climate  to  seed  abundantly.  Bermuda  is 
objectionable  as  a  lawn  grass  because  it  turns  brown- 
ish in  the  autumn. 

Johnson  Grass  is  perhaps  more  feared  in  the  South 
as  a  weed  than  any  other  plant,  yet  in  many  sections 
it  is  an  important  grass  for  hay,  and  large  quantities 
of  it  are  cut  for  this  purpose.  If  Johnson  grass  is 
cut  persistently  for  hay  or  heavily  pastured,  the  new 
root-stocks  become  thin,  short  and  near  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  After  such  treatment  Johnson  grass  is 
much  more  easily  destroyed. 

Vetches. — There  are  two  vetches  commonly  grown 
in  the  United  States,  the  common  vetch  and  the  hairy 
vetch.  Common  vetch  is  extensively  grown  on  the 
Pacific  Coast,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  South. 
In  these  regions  it  is  grown  as  a  winter  crop.  To  a 
very  limited  extent  it  has  been  grown  northward  as  a 
summer  crop.  On  account  of  the  weak  stems  of  vetch 
it  is  usually  sown  with  wheat,  oats  or  rye,  the  stiff 
stems  of  which  serve  to  hold  the  vetch  stems  upright. 

Hairy  vetch  is  much  more  hardy  than  common 
vetch,  withstanding  the  winters  as  far  north  as  Con- 
necticut. It  does  not  grow  much  during  the  winter, 
but  with  the  first  warm  weather  of  spring  it  grows 
very  rapidly.  When  fully  grown  the  fine  stems  are 
frequently  six  feet  high  and  double  that  length  when 
straightened  out.  In  the  South  there  is  an  increasing 
tendency  to  plant  mixtures  of  hairy  vetch  with  common 
vetch,  as  the  latter  is  apt  to  freeze  out  in  exceptionally 
cold  winters. 

Cowpeas. — The  cowpea  is  a  native  of  India  and  one 
of  the  oldest  cultivated  plants.  Before  the  discovery 
of  America  it  was  commonly  grown  through  South- 
ern Europe  as  a  food,  but  at  the  present  time  is  more 
important  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  part 
of  the  world.  There  are  over  one  hundred  different 
varieties  of  cowpeas.     The  multiplicity  of  varieties  is 


194 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


due  in  part  to  the  fact  that  in  some  portions  of  the 
world  the  varieties  cross  readily,  thus  giving  rise  to 
new  varieties.  When  cowpeas  are  grown  alone,  the 
most  common  practice  is  to  broadcast  them  on  wheat 
or  oat  stubble.  Another  common  practice  is  to  plant 
them  in  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation. 
Where  corn  is  grown  for  ensilage,  many  farmers  also 
grow  cowpeas  in  the  corn,  as  the  mixture  makes  a  bet- 
ter ensilage  than  corn  alone.      Cowpea  varieties  are 


CORN   AND   COWPEAS. 


distinguished  in  part  by  the  color  of  the  seeds,  which 
may  be  white,  buff,  pink,  red,  black,  marbled  or  speck- 
led. Various  combinations  of  these  colors  also  occur, 
Cowpeas  are  usually  planted  from  the  middle  of  May 
to  the  first  of  June.  When  planted  earlier  or  on  very 
rich  land,  the  tendency  is  to  go  largely  to  vine.  When 
planted  late  on  poor  soil,  they  go  more  largely  to  seed. 
Soy  Bean. — This  plant  is  a  native  of  Asia,  and  is 
largely  grown  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  for  food. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  being  grown  more  and  more 


FARM    CROPS. 


195 


SOY   BEAN. 


extensively  as  a  forage  crop,  especially  in  the  South- 
ern States.  Soy  beans  are  usually  planted  in  rows, 
but  sometimes  they  are 
broadcasted  and  some- 
times planted  in  between 
corn  rows  after  the  man- 
ner of  cowpeas.  The 
Mammoth  variety  is 
more  frequently  grown 
in  the  South. 

Lespedeza  or  Japan 
clover  was  introduced 
from  Japan  about  1830, 
and  now  grows  naturally 
throughout  the  Southern 
States.  It  is  remarkable 
for  its  ability  to  grow 
on  the  poorest  of  soils. 
In  such  situations,  how- 
ever, it  grows  only  to  a 
height  of  from  4  to  6  inches;  on  richer  soils  it  will 
grow  12  to  18  inches  high,  and  so  thickly  as  to  furnish 
large  crops  of  hay  per  acre. 

Crimson  Clover  is  an  annual,  native  to  Southern  Eu- 
rope, and  now  extensively  used  as  a 
winter  crop  along  the  Atlantic  Coast 
from  Central  New  Jersey  to  Georgia, 
it  being  most  important  in  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia and  North  Carolina.  Crimson 
clover  is  commonly  sown  in  corn  at 
the  time  it  is  laid  by.  Unless  weather 
conditions  are  favorable,  the  farmer 
frequently  fails  to  get  a  good  stand. 
Its  culture  is  extending  southward, 
and  in  time  it  may  be  grown 
over  most  of  the  cotton  belt. 

Velvet  Bean. — The  velvet  bean  was  introduced  into 
Florida    about    fifty    years  ago  from  some  unknown 


CRIMSON   CLOVER. 


196  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

source,  though,  in  all  probability,  it  is  a  native  of 
Southern  Asia.  It  was  first  cultivated  as  an  orna- 
mental plant,  but  is  now  extensively  grown  as  a  soil 
improver  and  for  forage.  The  usual  method  of  har- 
vesting the  crop  is  to  turn  cattle  into  the  field  in  late 
fall  to  pasture  it. 

Canada  Pea. — The  Canada  pea,  which  is  botanically 
the  same  species  as  the  garden  pea  or  English  pea,  is 
in  some  portions  of  the  country  an  important  forage 
crop.  It  is  grown  extensively  for  this  purpose  in 
many  of  the  Northern  and  Western  States.  Very 
commonly  it  is  sown  with  oats,  the  crop  being  har- 
vested for  hay.  In  Colorado,  in  recent  years,  it  has 
been  extensively  grown  and  pastured  to  sheep. 

Crab  Grass  is  an  annual  grass  native  to  India,  and 
was  introduced  at  an  early  day  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  commonly  looked  upon  as  a  weed,  as  it  springs  up 
in  great  abundance  in  cornfields,  on  oat  stubble,  and 
often  in  cotton  fields  after  cultivation  has  ceased. 
Large  quantities  of  it  are,  however,  cut  for  hay,  the 
quality  of  which  is  fair.  It  is  never  necessary  to  sow 
the  seed,  as  it  volunteers  on  cultivated  land  as  soon  as 
the  crop  has  been  removed. 

Rescue  Grass  is  a  native  of  Argentina,  but  now 
growing  wild  throughout  the  South.  It  is  a  valuable 
grass  for  winter  pasturage  on  rich  lands. 

Cheat  is  a  common  weed  in  grain  fields,  but  is  some- 
times grown  for  hay  in  Georgia  and  Alabama. 
Wheat  and  oats  furnish  a  similar  and  better  hay. 

Millets — Of  the  millets  there  are  many  varieties, 
the  most  common  that  are  grown  for  hay  being  Ger- 
man millet  and  Hungarian  millet  or  Hungarian  grass. 
The  millets  are  particularly  valuable  in  that  they  can 
be  sown  at  almost  any  time  during  the  summer,  and 
produce  a  crop  of  hay  within  a  short  period. 

Italian  Rye  Grass  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  com- 
monly used  as  a  part  of  a  mixture  for  lawn  grasses, 
as  it  grows  quickly  and  vigorously,  especially  during 
cool  weather.     It  has  been  extensively  used  on  the  Pa- 


FARM    CROPS. 


197 


cific  Coast,  and  Is  more  and  more  becoming  important 
in  the  sandy  soil  along  the  Atlantic  Coast,  as  it  grows 
rapidly  on  relatively  poor  soils.  It  is  highly  relished 
by  live-stock  both  as  pasture  and  as  hay. 

AMOUNT  OF   SEED   PER   ACRE   FOR   SOME   OF  OUR 
FORAGE   CROPS 


Alfalfa  (broadcast) . . .  20-30  lbs. 

Alfalfa  (drilled) 15-20  lbs. 

Alsike  Clover 5-8  lbs. 

Bermuda 3-5  lbs. 

Cowpea  (drilled) Ys  bu. 

Crimson  Clover 15-20  lbs. 

Italian  Rye  Grass 20-30  lbs. 

Johnson l-i  J^  bu. 

Kentucky  Blue 3-4  bu. 

Lespedeza 10-15  lbs. 

Meadow  Fescue 20-25  lbs. 


Millet 1/2  bu. 

Orchard %  bu. 

Red  Clover 10-15  lbs. 

Red  Top  (recleaned). ..  12-15  lbs. 

Rescue 30  lbs. 

Tall  Meadow  Oat  Grass.30-50  lbs. 

Teosinte 4-5  lbs. 

Timothy 10-20  lbs. 

Velvet  Bean  (drilled).. .  2  pks. 
Velvet  Bean  (broadcast)  i  bu. 
Vetch  (common)  1  bu.  + 1  bu.cereal 


Exercise. — How  do  legumes  enrich  the  soil?  Do  the  crops  that  fol- 
low legumes  generally  give  higher  yields  ?  Ask  your  parents  for  the 
names  of  the  varieties  of  cowpeas.  Bring  seeds  of  all  the  varieties 
of  cowpeas  you  can  secure  to  the  classroom  and  describe  them.  Do 
your  folks  always  receive  clean  seed  ?  Bring  specimens  of  grasses 
and  legumes  to  school  and  make  a  thorough  examination  of  their 
roots  and  general  structure.  Examine  the  roots  of  the  legumes  for 
the  nodules. 

The  teacher  should  take  the  class  to  the  fields  and  identify  the 
grasses  and  legumes  prevalent  in  the  section.  This  subject  can  be 
made  very  interesting  by  such  outdoor  study. 


Section  XXVIIL— Weeds. 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier, 
Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute. 

J  JVeed  is  a  Plant  Out  of  Place. — There  is  no  set 
line  of  demarkation  between  weeds  and  our  most  valu- 
able farm  crops,  and  many  useful  plants  were  once 
considered  troublesome  pests.  Plants  that  are  con- 
sidered weeds  in  one  part  of  the  country  may  be  staple 
farm  crops  in  another.  Artichokes  are  looked  upon 
with  disfavor  by  a  great  many  farmers,  because  they 
are  inclined  to  grow  wild  and  persist  in  the  land  for 
a  number  of  years.     If  pastured  with  hogs,  however, 


igS 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


artichokes  furnish  excellent  winter  forage,  and  the  dan- 
ger of  becoming  pests  is  greatly  reduced.  Johnson 
grass,  the  enemy  of  the  cotton  grower,  has  been  widely 
recommended  by  agricultural  writers  because  of  its 
value  for  hay  and  pasture.  As  civilization  advances 
uses  will  be  found  for  plants  that  are  now  considered 
worthless,  and  as  our  knowledge  and  skill  in  plant 
breeding  increases  many  plants  of  little  value  at  the 


A    WEED-INFESTED    FIELD. 


present  time  will  be  so  improved  that  their  cultivation 
will  yield  a  profit. 

Loss  from  fVeeds. — Weeds  lower  the  yield  of  the 
crop  in  which  they  grow  in  four  ways.  i.  They  util- 
ize the  available  plant  food  in  the  soil  that  would 
otherwise  be  used  by  the  crop.  2.  They  use  enormous 
amounts  of  water  in  their  growth,  and  often  so  ex- 
haust the  supply  of  moisture  in  the  soil  that  the  more 
valuable  plants  are  unable  to  withstand  periods  of 
drought.  3.  Sometimes  the  weeds  get  such  a  start 
ahead  of  the  other  plants  that  they  deprive  them  of 


FARM    CROPS.  199 

the  sunlight  necessary  for  their  development,  4.  A 
few  plants,  as  the  dodders  for  instance,  are  parasites, 
and  derive  their  nourishment  directly  from  the  juices 
of  the  plants  on  which  they  grow. 

Eradication  of  Weeds. — The  chief  interest  a  farmer 
has  in  weeds  is  to  get  rid  of  them.  This  is  accom- 
plished in  various  ways.  Thorough  cultivation  which 
prevents  the  development  of  leaves  will  in  time  kill  any 
weed.  Plants,  such  as  Johnson  grass  and  Canadian 
thistle,  which  have  a  reserve  supply  of  food  stored  in 
their  roots,  will  take  much  longer  to  kill  by  this  pro- 
cess than  others  lacking  this  advantage.  No  new  ma- 
terial can  be  produced,  however,  without  the  aid  of 
chlorophyll,  the  green  substance  of  plants,  so  sooner 
or  later  the  plants  must  die  if  the  leaves  are  not  al- 
lowed to  grow.  This  same  result  is  accomplished  on 
small  patches  of  bad  weeds  by  covering  them  over  with 
straw,  boards,  or  pieces  of  building  paper  held  in  place 
by  a  few  shovelfuls  of  dirt. 

Chemicals  as  Weed  Destroyers. — In  the  last  four 
or  five  years  much  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  use 
of  chemicals  as  weed  destroyers.  Spraying  wheat- 
fields  infested  with  wild  mustard  with  a  20  per  cent, 
solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  has  been  successful  in  de- 
stroying the  mustard  without  injury  to  the  wheat. 
Heavy  applications  of  common  table  salt  will  kill  all 
kinds  of  weeds,  but  unfortunately  it  makes  no  distinc- 
tion between  weeds  and  other  plants  in  this  respect. 

Proper  Cultivation  Keeps  Down  Weeds. — Improv- 
ing the  fertility  of  land  tends  to  lessen  the  trouble  with 
weeds.  On  rich  soils  the  cultivated  crops  are  able  to 
make  sufficient  growth  to  keep  the  weeds  in  check — 
the  reverse  happens  on  soils  lacking  plant  food.  Usu- 
ally the  poorer  a  farm  is  in  fertility  the  more  liberally 
is  it  stocked  with  weeds. 

Preventive  Measures. — Preventive  measures  will  do 
much  to  keep  a  farm  from  getting  infested  with  weeds. 
All  weeds  along  fences  and  other  uncultivated  places 
should   be   cut   before   they  form  seed.     These  waste 


200  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

places  If  allowed  to  grow  up  to  weeds  often  harbor 
insects  and  plant  diseases,  as  well  as  furnishing  a  sup- 
ply of  seed  for  the  fields  adjoining.  A  great  deal  of 
care  should  be  exercised  in  regard  to  the  quality  of  the 
seed  sown.  Often  our  worst  weeds  are  scattered 
from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another  in  grain  and 
other  farm  seeds.  All  seed  should  be  examined  for 
purity  before  being  sown. 

Exercise. — Name  some  weeds  common  to  your  locality.  Name 
those  weeds  which  are  easy  to  get  rid  of.  Set  aside  a  small  plot 
of  ground  which  has  some  weeds  growing  on  it  and  apply  a  saturated 
solution  of  common  salt.  Have  the  pupils  note  the  effect  of  the 
salt  on  the  weeds.  If  there  is  any  wild  mustard  growing  in  your 
neighborhood  apply  a  20  per  cent,  solution  of  iron  sulphate  to  a  plot 
six  feet  square.  The  iron  sulphate  can  be  obtained  at  any  drug 
store. 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING. 

Farm    Crops. 
Rotation  of  Crops  : 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1902 — Practices  in  crop  rotation. 

1908 — Intensive  methods  and  systematic  rotation  of  crops  in 
tobacco  culture 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

144 — Rotation  of  crops. 

22,7 — Cropping  systems  for  New  England  dairy  farms. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No. : 

60 — Delaware — Cover  crops  as  green  manure. 
Corn: 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

81 — Corn  culture  in  the  South. 

199 — Corn  growing. 

229 — The  production  of  good  seed  corn. 

253 — The  germination  of  seed  corn. 

292 — The  cost  of  filling  silos. 

303 — Corn-harvesting  machinery. 

313 — Harvesting  and  storing  corn. 

317 — Shrinkage  of  corn  in  cribs. 

366 — Corn  breeding. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

204 — North   Carolina — Some  factors  involved  in  successful 
corn  growing. 

Bulletins  of  the  Middle  West  Experiment  Stations. 
Cotton  : 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

36 — Cotton  seed  and  its  products. 

48 — The  manuring  of  cotton. 


FARM    CROPS.  20I 

.        217 — Essential  steps  in  securing  early  cotton. 

285 — The  advantage  of  planting  heavy  cotton  seed. 

302 — Sea  Island  cotton. 

314 — A  method  of  breeding  early  cotton  to  escape  boll  weevil 
damage. 

326 — Building  up  a  run-down  cotton  plantation. 

364 — A  profitable  cotton  farm. 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bul- 
letin, No. : 

33 — The  cotton  plant. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No. : 

107 — Alabama — Cotton. 
Rice: 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

1 10-305 — Rice. 
Experiment   Station  Bulletin,  No. : 

77 — Louisiana — Rice. 

Cereal  Crops  : 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

1 22-2 1 0-237-262-273 — Wheat. 

222 — Replacement  of  grain  with  silage. 

276 — Oat  culture  in  the  South. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

2 — Kansas — Circular — Preparing  land  for  winter  wheat. 

10 — Washington — Wheat,  barley,  oats,  peas  and  forage  crops. 

32 — Nebraska — Wheat  and  some  of  its  products. 

62 — Minnesota — Wheat  varieties,  breeding  and  cultivation. 

70 — Minnesota — Influence  of  wheat  farming  on  soil  fertility. 

89 — Nebraska — Winter  wheat. 

144 — Kansas — Small  grain  crops. 

8-— North  Carolina  Dept.  of  Agriculture — Culture  of  wheat 
and  oats. 

Sugar  Cane: 

Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

5 — Louisiana — Sugar  making  on  a  small  scale. 

75 — Louisiana — Preservation  of  cane  syrups. 

78 — Louisiana — Experiments    with    seedling    canes. 

91 — Louisiana — Chemistry  of  sugar  cane  and  its  products. 

Tobacco : 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

60 — Methods  of  curing. 

82 — The  culture  of  tobacco. 

83 — Tobacco  soils.  , 

343 — The  cultivation  of  tobacco  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee. 
Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

138 — The  production  of  cigar  wrapper  tobacco  under  shade 
in  the  Connecticut  Valley. 

143 — Principles  and  practical  methods  of  curing  tobacco. 

Root  Crops  : 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

35-149-244 — Potatoes   (Irish). 
52-79-92 — Sugar  beet. 


202  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

129-273-324 — Sweet  potatoes. 

295 — Potatoes  and  other  root  crops. 

309 — Root  crops ;  culture  and  varieties. 

385 — Potato  growing  in  Northern  sections. 

386 — Potato  cuhure  on  irrigated  farms  of  the  West. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

243 — New  York — Cornell — Root  crops  for  stock  feeding. 

244 — New    York — Cornell — Culture    and    varieties    of   roots 
for  stock-feeding. 

267 — New    York — Cornell — Fertilizer    and    seeding    experi- 
ments with  root  crops. 

Forage  Crops  and  Grasses  : 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1895 — Canadian  field  peas. 

1902 — Bacteria  and  the  nitrogen  problem. 
Farpiers'  Bulletins,  No. : 

16— Leguminous  plants. 

58-309-372 — The  soy  bean. 

66 — Meadows  and  pastures. 

69-101-168— Millet. 

^2 — Cattle  ranges  of  the  Southwest. 

102 — Southern  forage  plants. 

121 — Beans,  peas  and  other  legumes  as  food. 

135-246-288— Sorghum. 

147 — Winter  forage  crops  for  the  South. 

237 — Use  of  lime  for  clover  sickness. 

260 — Seed  of  red  clover  and  its  impurities. 

267-356 — Peanuts. 

278---Leguminous  crops  for  green  manuring. 

288 — Non-saccharine  sorghums — Kaffir  corn. 

300 — Some  important  grasses  and  forage  plants  for  the  Gulf 
Coast  region. 

309-318 — Cowpeas. 

312 — A  successful  Southern  hay  farm. 

323 — Clover  farming  on  the  sandy  Jack-Pine  lands. 

339 — Alfalfa. 

361 — Meadow  fescue ;  its  culture  and  uses. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

155 — Kansas — Alfalfa. 

160 — Kansas — Cowpeas. 
Division    of    Agrostology,    U.    S.    Dept.    of    Agriculture,    Bul- 
letin, No. : 

14 — Economic  grasses. 

Weeds  : 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 
1896 — Migration  of  weeds. 
1898 — Weeds  in  cities  and  towns. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

28 — Weeds  and  how  to  kill  them. 
279 — A  method  of  eradicating  Johnson  grass. 
334 — Vitality  of  weed  seeds  in  manure. 
368 — The  eradication  of  bindweed. 


FARM    CROPS.  203 

Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

14 — Idaho — Twelve  of  Idaho's  worst  weeds. 

76 — -Wisconsin — Noxious   weeds  of  Wisconsin. 

80 — North  Dakota — Weeds  and  methods  of  eradication. 

184 — Virginia — Impurities  in  grass  and  clover  seed  sold  in 
Virginia. 
-Books  : 

Cereals  in  America — Hunt — Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America — Hunt — Orange    Judd  Co., 

New  York  City. 
Farm    Grasses   in   the   United    States — Spillman — Orange    Judd 

Co.,  New  York  City. 
Cotton — Burkett  &   Poe — Doubleday,    Page   &   Co.,    New   York 

City. 
The  Potato — Fraser — Orange    Judd  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Corn  Plants — Sargent — Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Sugar  Cane — Stubbs  &  Purse — D.  G.  Purse,  Savannah,  Ga. 
Manual    of    Corn    Judging — Shamel — Orange     Judd    Co.,    Nev« 

York  City. 
Corn — Bowman  &  Crossley — Ames,  Iowa. 


CHAPTER    V. 

TREES  AND  THE   GARDEN. 

Section  XXIX. — The  Planting  and  Care  of  the 
Orchard. 

By  Prof.  C.  P.  Halligan, 
Department  of  Horticulture,   Michigan   State  Agricultural   College. 

Every  Farmer  should  have  an  Orchard. — Fruits 
are  grown  with  success  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Although  there  are  certain  districts  which, 
because  of  certain  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate, are  better  adapted  for  fruit  growing  than  others, 
there  is  no  reason  why  every  farmer  should  not  pos- 
sess an  orchard  of  sufficient  size  at  least  to  supply  the 
home.  As  food  fruits  are  both  pleasant  and  health- 
ful, and  as  a  farm  crop  they  are  one  of  the  most  wide- 
spread. Although  oftentimes  they  apparently  succeed 
in  quite  adverse  conditions,  larger  crops  of  better  fruits 
will  be  produced  if  they  are  given  the  proper  care  and 
attention. 

Selection  of  a  Site. — One  of  the  first  considerations 
in  the  growing  of  fruits  is  the  selection  of  a  proper 
site.  Fruits  cannot  thrive  with  "  wet  feet."  In  the 
low  wet  places,  for  instance,  apple  trees  grow  with 
twisted  trunks.  This  simply  shows  that  these  trees 
are  sick  with  "  wet  feet  "  and  that  the  soil  needs  drain- 
age. In  considering  the  drainage,  the  air  drainage 
of  the  site  needs  attention.  Cold  air  being  heavier 
than  warm  air  settles  in  the  low  spots  first.  Fruits 
planted  in  such  places  are  not  only  more  subject  to 
the  late  frosts  in  the  spring  while  they  are  in  blos- 
som but,  owing  to  the  poor  circulation  of  air  here,  they 

204 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN.  205 

are  more  subject  to  fungus  diseases.  Therefore,  in 
selecting  a  site,  one  must  be  chosen  with  a  gentle  slope 
sufficient  to  insure  good  soil  and  air  drainage.  Such 
a  site,  with  a  soil  of  sufficient  fertility  and  a  good  tex- 
ture, constitutes  the  ideal  site  for  a  fruit  garden. 

Age  to  Plant  Trees. — Trees  are  planted  at  different 
ages,  depending  upon  the  kind.  Peaches  and  cherries, 
for  example,  are  better  at  one  year  old,  while  apples, 
pears  and  plums  are  generally  planted  at  the  age  of 
two  or  three  years. 

Roots  should  be  Cut  Clean. — As  these  trees  are  dug 
from  the  nursery  many  of  the  roots  are  wounded, 
while  others  are  entirely  cut  away.  At  the  time  of 
planting,  therefore,  the  roots  of  all  of  the  trees  should 
be  carefully  examined,  using  a  sharp  knife  to  make  a 
clean  cut  wherever  the  roots  have  been  left  with  rough 
jagged  ends.  A  clean  cut  on  all  roots  and  branches 
heals  most  readily. 

How  to  Plant  a  Tree. — In  planting  the  tree  the 
holes  should  be  made  a  little  larger  than  the  natural 
spread  of  the  roots,  and  the  trees  set  about  two  inches 
deeper  than  they  were  in  the  nursery.  The  most  im- 
portant point  in  planting  the  trees  is  to  see  that  the  soil 
is  packed  firmly  all  around  and  under  the  roots.  This 
is  done  to  drive  out  all  of  the  air  spaces,  and  bring  the 
soil  particles  into  closest  contact  with  the  roots,  as  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  roots  take  their  moisture 
by  osmosis.  The  last  two  or  three  inches  of  soil 
should  be  left  loose  to  act  as  a  soil  mulch. 

Distance  between  Trees. — The  distance  apart  that 
the  trees  are  planted  will  depend  largely  upon  the  kind 
and  variety.  Thus,  peaches  are  generally  planted 
20  to  25  feet  apart,  while  apples  are  usually  set  from 
30  to  40  feet.  Whatever  the  kind  of  fruit  may  be, 
the  distance  apart  that  the  trees  are  set  should  be  suffi- 
cient to  insure  plenty  of  room  and  sunlight  for  the 
tops,  and  a  large  feeding  surface  for  the  roots. 

Trees  should  be  Pruned  when  Planted. — After  the 
trees  are  set,  the  top  should  be  pruned,  cutting  out  all 


2o6 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


of  the  weak  branches  and  pruning  the  others  well  back. 
As  much  of  the  root  surface  was  lost  in  digging  the 
trees,  this  pruning  tends  to  restore  the  natural  balance 


ILLUSTRATING    PRUNING   OF    THE   LARGER   GRADES    OF    PEACH    TREES. 
No.  2  is  properly  pruned,  while  No.  3  is  headed  too  high. 

which  should  exist  between  the  tops  and  the  roots.  At 
this  time,  training  the  tree  into  an  ideal  form  should  be 
begun  and  the  branches  should  be  kept  well  spread 
along  the  trunk  to  prevent  their  splitting  and  breaking 
when  they  become  heavily  burdened  with  fruit. 

Cultivation  is  Necessary. — The  opinion  is  preva- 
lent that  fruit  trees  need  little  attention  after  planting. 
The  best  fruit  growers,  however,  keep  their  orchard 
tilled  during  the  first  half  of  the  season  as  carefully  as 
the  average  farmer  tills  his  corn.     After  every  rain 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


207 


the  orchard  should  be  carefully  cultivated  to  form  a 
soil  mulch,  as  plenty  of  moisture  is  of  first  importance 
in  the  production  of  good  fruits.  Grasses,  grains  or 
other  uncultivated  crops  should  not  be  planted  in  the 
orchard  at  this  time,  as  they  absorb  great  quantities  of 
moisture  from  the  soil  when  the  trees  need  it  the  most. 
Cover  Crops. — About  midsummer,  however,  rye, 
oats,  clover  or  other  leguminous  crops  are  generally 
sown.  This  is  known  as  a  cover  crop.  It  absorbs 
the  moisture  and  the  available  plant  food  from  the 
soil,  causing  the  growth  of  the  tree  to  cease  and  the 
buds  to  mature.  It  protects  the  soil  and  roots  in  win- 
ter from  freezing  and  thawing,  and  also  from  washing. 
Early  in  the  spring  this  crop  is  plowed  under,  adding 
more  humus  and  plant  food  to  the  soil.     In  this  way 


OATS  AS  A  COVER  CROP  IN  AN  APPLE  ORCHARD. 

the   fruit  grower  often  maintains  the   fertility  of  his 
orchard  with  little  or  no  additional  fertilizer. 

Spraying  protects  the  trees  from  harmful  insects  and 
fungus  diseases.     Although  most  of  our  orchards  are 


208 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Still  unsprayed,  spraying 
is  practiced  regularly  by 
the  best  fruit  growers.  It 
consists  in  spraying  the 
trees  with  a  liquid  that 
destroys  the  harmful  in- 
sects and  fungi  without  in- 
jury to  the  tree  and  fruits, 
rhe  particular  liquid  used 
and  the  time  that  it  is  ap- 
plied vary  with  the  differ- 
ent regions  and  different 
fruits.  For  most  fungus 
diseases  the  mixture  used 
consists  of  4  pounds  of 
copper  sulphate,  5  pounds 
of  lime  and  50  gallons  of 
water.  Paris  green  is  the 
poison  generally  applied 
for  chewing  insects,  although  other  forms  of  arsenic 
are  often  preferable.  This  poison  is  generally  applied 
with  the  former  mixture,  taking  6  to  8  ounces  for  the 
above  amount. 

Exercise. — Select  a  site  in  your  locality  that  you  believe  would  be 
an  ideal  one  for  an  orchard.  Explain  your  reasons  for  this  selection. 
Is  there  an  orchard  in  your  locality  that  you  think  is  poorly  situated  ? 
Why?  Explain  the  proper  method  of  planting  a  tree.  How  far 
apart  are  the  apple  trees  planted  on  your  farm  or  in  an  orchard  in 
your  locality?  Do  you  think  that  this  distance  is  the  most  desirable? 
Why  is  it  necessary  to  prune  the  branches  on  the  tree  after  it  has 
been  transplanted?  How  many  farmers  in  your  locality  till  their 
orchards?  How  many  do  not?  Which  are  the  more  successful  in 
producing  good  crops  of  fruit?  Why  is  a  cover  crop  advisable? 
Describe  some  harmful  insects  or  diseases  that  you  have  seen  on  the 
apple.     How  could  these  have  been  prevented? 


A   WELL-TILI.ED   ORCHARD. 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN.  209 

Section  XXX. — Pomology. 

By  Prof.  C.  P.  Halligan, 
Department  of  Horticulture,   Michigan   State  Agricultural   College. 

Fruit  growing  and  pomology  as  commonly  known 
are  synonymous  terms.  It  comprises  the  art  of  grow- 
ing all  kinds  of  fruit.  Covering  such  a  broad  field, 
it  may  be  well,  for  proper  consideration  of  the  subject, 
to  designate  its  several  branches  as  follows :  Tree 
fruits,  as  typified  by  the  apple;  vine  fruits,  as  typified 
by  the  grape;  and  small  fruits,  as  typified  by  the  straw- 
berry and  raspberry. 

I.  Tree  Fruits. — Tree  fruits  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes,  namely,  pome,  stone  and  citrous  fruits. 

Pome. — "  Apple  like "  fruits  are  called  pomes. 
Hence  the  apple,  pear  and  quince  comprise  the  pomes. 

Apples.' — The  apple  is  the  most  important  commer- 
cial American  fruit.  It  was  early  introduced  into  this 
country,  and  has  been  planted  to  such  an  extent  that  to- 
day North  America  stands  as  the  leading  apple  grow- 
ing country  of  the  world.  The  apple  thrives  almost 
everywhere  in  the  United  States,  and  is  grown  on  a 
great  variety  of  soils.  Being  such  a  cosmopolitan 
fruit  it  is  commonly  neglected.  The  best  results  in 
apple  growing,  however,  are  to  be  expected  only  when 
the  trees  are  given  good  care  and  attention.  Thor- 
ough tillage,  judicious  fertilizing,  regular  pruning  and 
spraying  are  all  essential  in  producing  the  best  crops 
of  apples. 

Varieties. — In  the  selection  of  the  varieties  there  is 
no  best  variety  for  all  sections.  Whereas  the  Baldwin 
may  be  the  best  commercial  variety  for  New  England, 
we  find  the  Yellow  Newton  the  best  for  Virginia,  the 
Spitzenberg  for  Oregon,  and  the  Ben  Davis  for  Mis- 
souri. It  is  a  safe  rule  in  planting,  therefore,  to  select 
the  standard  varieties  that  are  best  adapted  to  the  par- 
ticular section. 

Pears. — Pears    thrive   particularly   well    in    certain 


2IO  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

parts  of  the  country,  but  in  many  places  cannot  be 
grown  with  success  on  a  commercial  scale.  In  many 
sections  the  trees  are  susceptible  to  fire  blight,  which 
is  mentioned  under  plant  diseases.  The  pear  thrives 
best  on  a  heavy  strong  clay,  while  on  a  sandy  soil  the 
tree  tends  to  be  short  lived.  Like  the  apple  the  pear 
also  demands  good  care  to  produce  the  best  crops. 
The  tree  suffers  more  from  neglect  than  the  apple,  and 
the  fruit  needs  to  be  picked  before  fully  ripe,  and 
stored  in  a  moderately  cool  dry  place  to  ripen  to  obtain 
its  best  flavor. 

Varieties. — The  Bartlett  is  the  most  popular  stand- 
ard variety,  while  the  Anjou  is  one  of  the  best  for 
quality.  The  Keiffer,  because  of  its  vigorousness, 
hardiness  and  productiveness  is  an  important  commer- 
cial variety.  Although  poor  in  quality,  it  is  a  profit- 
able and  desirable  sort  for  canning. 

Quince. — The  quince  is  a  slow-growing  tree,  seldom 
exceeding  fifteen  feet  in  height.  Being  grown  mostly 
for  jelly  or  preserves,  the  demand  for  this  fruit  is  gen- 
erally limited,  hence  it  has  increased  very  little  in  com- 
mercial importance  in  this  country.  It  requires  a  rich, 
well-drained  moist  soil  to  produce  the  best  crops.  As 
the  tree  is  very  shallow  rooted,  deep  plowing  should  be 
avoided.  Ihorough  tillage  should  be  given  to  the 
trees.  Cover  crops  are  essential  to  protect  the  shal- 
low roots  of  the  trees  from  frost  injury.  The  Orange, 
Champion  and  Rheo  are  the  leading  standard  varie- 
ties. 

Stone  Fruits. — The  peach,  plum,  cherry  and  apricot 
are  called  stone  fruits. 

The  Peach. — The  cultivation  of  this  fruit  is  gener- 
ally attended  with  great  risk.  In  the  North  the  buds 
are  subject  to  freezing  during  the  severe  cold  spells, 
while  in  the  South  they  are  likely  to  be  killed  by  sud- 
den freezes  following  a  prolonged  warm  spell.  The 
trees  blossom  early  in  the  spring,  and  in  many  sections, 
especially  on  low  land,  the  blossoms  are  apt  to  be 
killed  by  late  frosts.     Another  danger  which  attends 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


211 


the  growing  of  peaches  Is  the  disease  "  peach  yel- 
lows." No  cure  is  known  for  this  disease,  and  if  the 
infected  trees  are  not  dug  up  and  burned,  the  disease 
will  spread  and  destroy  the  whole  orchard. 

Peaches  grow  to  perfection  on  a  rich,  sandy  loam, 
often  giving  profitable  crops  in  four  or  five  years  after 
planting.  The  trees  demand  careful  cultivation,  prun- 
ing and  spraying  to  produce  the  best  crops.  The  fruit 
should  also  be  thinned  so  that  no  two  peaches  stand 


A    PEACH    ORCHARD. 


closer  on  the  same  branch  than  5  or  6  inches.  This 
thinning  results  in  larger  and  better  fruit,  and  also  in- 
duces annual  bearing. 

The  Elberta  is  one  of  the  most  hardy,  productive 
and  cosmopolitan  varieties,  and  is  planted  more  than 
any  other  one  variety. 

Plums. — 1  he  plums  cultivated  in  this  country  con- 
sist of  three  different  classes:  European,  Japanese  and 
American.  These  classes  vary  greatly  as  to  their 
adaptability  to  the  various  climatic  regions.     In  the 


212  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Northeastern  States  the  European  type  is  most  exten- 
sively grown,  while  in  many  parts  of  the  South  the 
Japanese  and  American  seem  to  thrive  the  best.  As 
a  rule  the  trees  grow  best  on  a  rather  moist,  clay  loam, 
although  certain  varieties  often  seem  to  thrive  on 
lighter  soils.  Often  the  plum  is  budded  upon  peach 
stock  when  it  is  necessary  to  plant  the  trees  upon  light 
soil.  The  trees  bear  annually  after  the  fifth  year,  and 
will  continue  to  produce  profitable  crops  under  proper 
care  for  about  ten  years.  In  most  sections  the  trees 
should  be  carefully  sprayed  and  the  fruit  thinned  so 
that  no  two  plums  touch  each  othar.  Some  of  the 
most  profitable  varieties  are  Lombard,  Green  Gage, 
Abundance,  Burbank,  Wild  Goose  and  Damson. 

Cherries. — There  are  two  principal  types  of  cher- 
ries, sweet  and  sour.  The  trees  of  the  sweet  cherries 
are  of  a  tall,  erect  growth,  while  the  sour  cherries  con- 
sist of  a  low  spreading  growth.  Although  the  sweet 
cherries  may  be  grown  with  success  in  only  compara- 
tively few  regions,  because  of  the  susceptibility  of  the 
fruit  to  rot,  the  sour  cherries  produce  good  crops  in 
many  sections  of  the  country. 

The  Early  Richmond  and  Montmorency  are  the 
leading  sour  varieties,  while  the  Black  Tartarian  and 
Windsor  and  Dikeman  seem  to  be  the  best  sweet  varie- 
ties. 

Citrus  Fruits. 

Orange. — The  orange  is  one  of  our  oldest  cultivated 
fruits.  The  principal  orange  sections  of  this  country 
are  Florida,  the  states  bordering  on  the  Gulf  Coast 
(principally  the  Mississippi  Delta  region),  parts  of 
Texas  and  Arizona  and  California. 

The  orange  will  grow  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil. 
The  rich  alluvial  lands  produce  the  larger  yields,  but 
the  poor  sandy  soils  the  better  and  higher  priced  fruit. 
On  the  sterile  sandy  soils  fertilizers  are  used  with  good 
success,  as  the  requirements  of  the  crop  are  easily  con- 
trolled on  these  soils  of  practically  no  fertility. 
Orange  trees  cannot  stand  a  temperature  as  low  as  26 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


213 


degrees  Fahrenheit  for  more  than  a  few  hours,  so  that 
it  is  necessary  to  grow  this  fruit  in  warm  localities. 
The  trees  are  propagated  by  budding,  and  after  re- 
maining in  the  nursery  for  about  two  years  they  are 
ready  to  set  out.  Usually  these  trees  are  planted 
from  20  to  25  feet  apart,  depending  upon  the  variety. 
The  trees  begin  to  bear  in  about  five  years,  and  may 
continue  to  bear  fruit  for  many  years  when  given  the 
proper  care  and  attention. 

Varieties. — There   are   a   great   many  varieties   of 


A   TYPICAL   EASTERN   VINEYARD. 

oranges.  These  may  all  be  classed  as  sweet  and 
bitter.  The  Washington  Navel  orange,  sometimes 
called  "  Bahia  "  because  it  was  imported  from  Bahia, 
Brazil,  is  a  seedless  orange  especially  adapted  to  Cali- 
fornia conditions.  This  variety  does  not  thrive  in 
Florida. 

2.  Vine  Fruits. 

Grapes. — Of  all  the  fruits,  the  grape  is  probably 
the  oldest  one  under  domestication.  Long  before 
America  had  been  discovered,  the  grape  was  exten- 
sively grown  in  the  Old  World  for  the  production  of 
wine.     After  many  futile  attempts  by  the  early  colo- 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN.  21$ 

nists  to  grow  this  Old  World  grape  in  their  new  land, 
it  was  finally  given  up,  and  to-day  most  of  our  suc- 
cessful commercial  varieties  are  of  our  own  native 
species.  On  the  Pacific  Slope,  however,  the  Old- 
World  grape  is  successfully  and  extensively  grown,  but 
because  of  the  unfavorable  climate  and  its  suscepti- 
bility to  mildew  and  phylloxera,  or  rot  louse,  it  cannot 
be  grown  with  success  in  most  other  sections  of  the 
United  States. 

Grapes  are  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  this  coun- 
try, although  only  in  a  few  sections  has  it  developed 
into  a  commercial  industry.  These  sections  are  gen- 
erally bordering  large  bodies  of  water  whose  moderat- 
ing influence  favors  the  industry.  The  site  for  the 
vineyard  should  possess  good  soil  and  air  drainage, 
and  the  soil  should  be  only  moderately  rich.  Too 
much  nitrogen  in  the  soil  stimulates  an  excessive  wood 
growth. 

Pruning  and  Spraying. — The  grape  is  naturally  a 
rampant  grower.  Therefore  severe  annual  pruning 
should  be  practiced  to  keep  the  vine  within  bounds 
and  to  reduce  the  amount  of  wood,  thus  limiting  the 
amount  of  fruit  produced.  This  pruning  is  usually 
performed  in  late  winter  or  early  spring,  and  the  twigs 
are  often  made  into  hard-wood  cuttings  for  the  prop- 
agation of  more  vines.  Spraying  is  practiced  regu- 
larly by  the  best  growers  to  control  the  mildew  which 
attacks  the  foliage,  and  also  to  control  the  grape  rot 
of  the  fruit. 

Varieties. — The  Concord  is  the  leading  standard 
variety  of  the  American  grape.  The  Worden,  Brigh- 
ton, Delaware,  Niagara  and  Moore's  Early  are  other 
leading  varieties. 

3.  Small  Fruits. — The  small  fruits  are  special  fav- 
orites in  the  American  fruit  garden,  as  they  give  quick 
returns  and  are  easily  grown  and  occupy  less  space  than 
the  tree  fruits. 

Strawberry. — This  fruit  is  grown  with  marked  suc- 
cess in  every  section  of  the  Union.      It  thrives  on  a 


2l6 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


A   FIELD  OF   COMMERCIAL    STRAWBERRIES. 

greater  variety  of  soils  than  any  other  fruits,  is  com- 
paratively free  from  insects  and  diseases,  and  pro- 
duces an  abundant  crop  under  ordinary  care.  These 
favorable  points  of  the  strawberry  have  placed  it  as 
a  commercial  fruit  second  only  to  the  apple. 

How  Planted. — In  starting  a  bed  of  strawberries 
only  young  plants  should  be  selected.  These  should 
be  planted  in  the  Northern  States,  early  in  the  spring, 
but  in  the  Southern  States  fall  planting  is  most  advis- 
able, as  it  gives  the  plants  time  to  become  established 
before  the  hot,  dry  season  overtakes  them.  The 
plants  are  generally  set  i8  inches  apart  in  a  row,  and 
the  rows  a  distance  of  3  or  4  feet  apart.  This  allows 
plenty  of  room  for  the  plants  to  spread,  and  also  for 
cultivation.  In  the  home  garden  they  may  be  planted 
closer.  During  the  growing  season  they  should  be 
frequently  cultivated,  being  careful,  however,  not  to 
cultivate  very  deep  as  the  plants  are  quite  shallow 
rooted.     In  most  of  the  Northern  States  and  in  many 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN.  217 

parts  of  the  South  strawberries  are  mulched  or  cov- 
ered for  the  winter.  After  the  ground  is  frozen  in 
the  fall,  a  covering  of  manure  or  clean  straw  is  ap- 
plied, thus  protecting  the  plants  from  severe  freezing, 
and  also  from  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  in 
the  spring. 

Varieties. — In  selecting  varieties  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  some  are  pistillate,  that  is,  they  have  no 
stamens,  called  imperfect,  and  others  have  both  stamens 
and  pistils,  and  are  called  perfect.  Imperfect  varieties, 
having  no  stamens,  will  not  be  fruitful  unless  inter- 
planted  with  perfect  varieties.  Most  plants  seem  to 
thrive  with  success  only  in  certain  localities,  therefore 
it  is  wise  in  selecting  the  most  desirable  to  plant  those 
that  thrive  best  in  a  particular  section.  Some  of  the 
most  cosmopolitan  kinds  are  the  Michel  and  Bubach 
for  early.  Glen  Mary,  Dunlap,  Sample  and  Brandy- 
wine  for  mid-season,  and  the  Gandy  for  late. 

Raspberries,  Blackberries  and  Dewberries. — Good 
profits  are  made  by  the  fruit  grower  from  these  fav- 
orite American  fruits.  Ripening  as  they  do  before 
most  of  the  other  fruits  can  be  harvested,  they  fill  an 
important  place  on  the  fruit  farm.  On  farms  located 
with  good  shipping  facilities  to  a  good  market,  they 
prove  a  good  annual  source  of  income.  They  are 
easily  grown,  and  although  they  prefer  a  moist,  cool 
soil,  well  filled  with  humus,  they  thrive  well  on  any 
good,  well-drained  garden  soil.  In  New  York  State 
large  fields  of  raspberries  are  grown  and  the  fruit 
dried.  In  this  dry  condition  they  are  shipped  to 
Alaska  and  other  distant  points. 

The  bushes  should  be  pruned  in  the  spring,  cutting 
out  all  the  weak  and  diseased  canes,  and  then  cutting 
the  laterals  about  one-third  back.  After  fruiting,  all 
the  old  canes  are  removed,  and  only  the  new  ones  are 
allowed  to  remain.  Some  of  the  standard  varieties  of 
each  are  as  follows: 

Blackberries — Early  Harvest,  Agawam  and  Lu- 
cretia. 


2i8  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Red  Raspberry — Cuthbert,  Shaffer  and  Turner. 

Black  Raspberry — Cumberland,  Gregg  and  Kansas. 

Currants  and  Gooseberries. — The  reliability  of 
these  fruits  entitles  them  to  a  place  In  every  fruit  gar- 
den. They  do  best  in  a  soil  that  Is  cool,  moist  and 
well-filled  with  humus,  hence  they  do  not  thrive  in  a 
hot,  dry  climate.  Fall  planting  is  preferable  with 
these  fruits,  as  they  become  well-established  during  the 
cool,  moist  days  of  early  spring  before  the  hot  dry 
summer.  The  plants  are  shallow-rooted,  and  should 
be  frequently  cultivated  to  prevent  the  roots  from 
drying  out.  From  five  to  sixteen  quarts  of  fruit 
should  be  produced  annually  upon  every  bush.  In 
pruning  the  oldest  canes  are  removed  In  early  spring 
and  new  ones  allowed  to  replace  them.  Large  profits 
are  often  made  on  these  crops,  as  there  is  a  great  de- 
mand for  them  In  the  city  for  making  jelly,  and  also 
from  the  canning  factories.  In  many  localities,  how- 
ever, the  demand  is  quite  limited.  On  the  fruit  farm 
they  are  planted  In  the  orchard  between  the  trees,  as 
they  do  well  In  a  more  or  less  shady  situation.  In  the 
home  fruit  garden  a  spot  on  the  north  side  of  a  build- 
ing furnishes  an  admirable  place  for  them. 

The  London  Market  is  the  leading  variety  of  cur- 
rant, while  the  Downing  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  of 
gooseberries. 

Exercise. — What  is  pomology?  What  branch  of  pomology  is 
practiced  the  most  in  your  locality?  What  are  the  factors  that  make 
the  apple  the  most  important  American  fruit?  What  varieties  of 
apples  are  grown  the  most  in  your  section  ?  Explain  the  factors 
that  make  your  locality  a  favorable  or  unfavorable  one  for  the  grow- 
ing of  pears.  Name  some  of  the  uses  of  the  quince.  Why  is  the 
growing  of  peaches  attended  with  great  risk?  Can  you  name  any 
variety  of  plums  that  you  think  would  thrive  in  your  locality?  How 
may  one  tell  the  difference  between  sour  and  sweet  cherry  trees? 
How  do  you  account  for  the  poor  soils  producing  the  highest  priced 
oranges?  Why  are  not  oranges  grown  over  a  greater  area?  Where 
are  navel  oranges  most  successful  ?  Can  you  name  the  best  variety 
of  grapes  to  grow  in  your  locality?  Is  it  an  American  or  Old  World 
grape?  Explain  how  to  start  a  strawberry  bed.  What  is  meant  by 
"perfect"  and  "imperfect"  flowers?  Name  the  small  fruits  that 
can  be  most  successfully  grown  in  your  locality. 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


219 


Section  XXXI. — Forestry. 

By  Prof.  Lyman  Carrier, 
Department  of  Agronomy,  Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute. 

The  American  people  have  been  wasteful  of  their 
forests.  A  century  ago  forests  were  looked  upon  as 
a  nuisance,  as  it  required  a  large  expenditure  of  labor 
to  clear  the  land  for  the  cultivation  of  other  crops. 


THE    EFFECTS    OF    FIRE    AFTER    LUMBERING. 

The  timber  did  not  pay  for  marketing — in  many  locali- 
ties there  was  no  demand  for  it  at  all.  For  this  rea- 
son forests  that  would  be  worth  untold  fortunes  at 
the  present  time  were  cut  down  and  burned.  As  the 
demand  for  timber  increased,  its  value  rose  until  lum- 
bering became  a  profitable  business.  Prospectors 
searched  the  continent  over  for  the  best  tracts  of  tim- 
ber. But  no  effort  was  made  to  conserve  this  valuable 
resource.  The  best  trees  were  cut  and  the  tops,  brush, 
and  other  rubbish  left  where  they  fell.     As  a  result,  a 


220  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

forest  fire  almost  always  followed  the  lumberman  and 
completed  the  work  of  destruction  which  he  had  only 
partly  accomplished.  Vast  areas  of  white  pine,  one 
of  the  most  useful  of  all  woods,  were  cut  over  in 
Maine,  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  in  about  twenty-five 
years. 

Pine  Barrens. — The  soil  on  which  this  timber  grew 
was,  as  a  rule,  worthless  for  farming  purposes,  so  the 
term  "  pine  barrens  "  is  now  applied  to  thousands  of 
acres  of  land  that  once  supported  the  most  magnificent 
and  valuable  forests  in  the  world. 

The  South  is  the  Present  Destructive  Section. — As 
the  timber  in  the  Northern  States  became  scarce,  the 
lumbermen  transferred  their  operations  to  the  South- 
ern States  and,  in  many  cases,  are  practicing  the  same 
destructive  methods  that  so  quickly  ruined  the  forests 
in  the  North. 

Government  Control  and  Study  of  Forestry. — Since 
about  1890  there  has  been  a  steadily  increasing  inter- 
est taken  in  the  subject  of  Forestry,  that  is,  the  proper 
methods  of  preserving  and  utilizing  our  forests  in  or- 
der that  we  may  have  a  permanent  supply  of  timber. 
The  Forest  Service  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture was  created,  and  Departments  of  Forestry 
were  started  in  a  number  of  colleges  and  universities. 
Large  tracts  of  timber  land  owned  by  the  Government 
were  withdrawn  from  the  market,  and  put  under  the 
care  of  the  Forest  Service.  Many  lumber  companies 
are  beginning  to  realize  the  folly  of  past  methods,  and 
are  endeavoring  to  save  the  young  growth  of  timber 
when  the  larger  trees  are  cut. 

How  a  Forest  should  he  Managed. — The  timber 
crop  needs  just  the  same  chance  for  growth  that  any 
farm  crop  does.  It  sprouts  from  seed,  grows,  ma- 
tures and  decays.  In  a  properly  conducted  forest  only 
the  mature  trees  are  cut  for  lumber,  the  young  growth 
being  allowed  to  develop.  Loose  brush  should  be 
piled  and  burned  where  it  can  do  no  damage. 
Crooked,    ill-shaped   trees   should  be  cut  out,  as  they 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


221 


m^:.  ^..Aj^ij;^.^:.^  %%.:M.M'W^^M 

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-%4i|p 

r  '" ' 

4    • 

'^S£~-         0»' 

Li  iw 

0^SS^ 

S 

Mm 

wii^!^^--ji^ " ''lypf^^'":^^"^,  .  ■  "^^  -'  •  - 

A   WELL-MANAGED   FOREST.       BRUSH    PILED   TO   PREVENT   FIRE. 

hinder  the  growth  of  the  better  specimens  near  them. 
No  attempt  to  make  a  pasture  out  of  a  farm  wood  lot 
should  ever  be  made.  It  is  impossible  to  raise  a  crop 
of  trees  successfully  and  pasture  a  herd  of  animals 
at  the  same  time  on  the  same  land.  When  thus  man- 
aged, the  owner  of  a  forest  derives  a  steady,  regular 
income  which  will  go  on  indefinitely. 

How  Trees  are  Injured. — Injury  to  trees  happens 
in  a  great  many  ways.  Fire  is  the  principal  source  of 
damage,  although  wind,  lightning,  animals,  fungus 
growths  and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  often  do  a  great 
deal  of  harm.  Insects  often  cause  a  great  amount 
of  trouble,  especially  in  small  pieces  of  woods  and 
shade  trees  in  towns  and  cities. 

Exercise. — Bring  as  many  leaves  of  forest  trees  as  possible  to  the 
classroom  and  see  if  you  cannot  identify  them.  How  do  the  methods 
that  are  sometimes  practiced  in  obtaining  turpentine  and  maple  sap 
injure  the  trees?  What  was  the  extent  of  damage  of  the  last 
forest  fire  in  your  section?  Has  your  State  a  Forest  Commission? 
The  class  should  take  a  trip  to  a  forest  or  woodland,  and  name  the 
different  trees,  criticize  the  method  of  lumbering,  and  point  out  trees 
that  should  be  cut  out  to  improve  the  growth  of  the  forest.  What 
trees  of  your  locality  are  used  for  lumber  ? 


222  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Section  XXXII. — The  Injury  of  Gas  and  Elec- 
tricity TO  Trees. 

By  Dr.  G.  E.  Stone, 
'■*  Department  of  Botany,  Massachusetts  Agricuftural  College. 

Causes  of  Gas  Leakage. — The  greatly  increased 
death  rate  of  trees  from  the  effects  of  escaping  illumi- 
nating gas  in  the  soil  may  be  accounted  for  in  part  by 
the  larger  amount  of  gas  now  used,  and  in  part  by  the 
different  methods  of  laying  and  calking  the  joints,  the 
different  types  of  connections,  larger  pipes,  etc.  Of 
course  the  heavy  traffic  on  highways,  the  continual  ex- 
cavation of  gas  conduits  and  the  effects  of  frost  are 
also  more  or  less  responsible  for  leakage. 

Gas  Leakage  Injures  Trees — While  the  leakage 
of  gas  may  be  very  slight  from  some  gas  mains,  pos- 
sibly only  a  few  cubic  feet  a  day,  even  this  small 
amount  will  surely  cause  injury  sooner  or  later,  as  the 
soil  becomes  charged  with  the  gas.  Such  leakage  may 
not  cause  the  immediate  death  of  the  tree,  but  will 
shorten  Its  life  and  often  results  in  a  condition  which 
from  ignorance  of  the  true  cause  is  sometimes  called 
"  general  debility,"  a  most  convenient  term. 

/Effected  Trees  Die. — There  is  absolutely  no  hope 
of  recovery  for  a  tree  which  has  been  affected  with 
gas  from  a  large  leak.  There  appears  to  be  little  dif- 
ference in  the  susceptibility  of  different  species  to  gas 
poisoning,  but  trees  with  a  large  spread  of  roots  are 
more  likely  to  be  affected  than  those  with  a  limited 
spread. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  of  gas  poisoning  are 
distinct  to  one  familiar  with  them;  one  of  the  first  ef- 
fects being  a  yellowing  of  the  foliage,  followed  by  a 
rapid  defoliation  of  the  tree  if  the  poisoning  is  severe. 
The  trunk  assumes  a  dark  color  in  some  cases;  the  sap- 
wood  is  often  found  to  be  discolored  and  it  has  pecu- 
liar, characteristic  odors  which  assist  in  diagnosis;  but 
when  the  tree  is  injured  in  late  summer,  when  the  flow 


EFFECTS  OF  GAS  ON  ELM  TREE  ONE  AND  A  HALF  YEARS  AFTER 
LEAKAGE   OCCURRED. 


224  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

of  sap  is  not  so  active,  the  odors  are  not  as  a  rule  so 
marked.  If  only  one  root  becomes  affected  with  gas, 
that  part  of  the  tree  nearest  it  will  show  the  effect  first, 
and  if  the  poisoning  has  not  extended  to  the  tree  trunk, 
amputation  of  the  affected  root  is  the  best  remedy. 
Such  fungi  as  Schizophyllum,  Polystictus  and  others 
often  appear  on  trees  soon  after  they  are  affected,  and 
their  presence  is  sometimes  significant. 

Detection  of  Leakage. — Certain  devices  may  be  em- 
ployed at  no  great  expense  when  installing  a  system 


_ 

\^^ 

^m 

JK^                                                   ^^^flflHI 

1^^:.                    __ -  -T-          j 

ONE    EFFECT   OF    ALTERNATING   CURRENT   ON    TREES. 

of  lines  which  will  quickly  detect  a  source  of  leakage 
and  prevent  gas  from  escaping  into  the  soil,  but  little 
can  be  done  for  a  tree  when  the  soil  near  it  has  once 
become  saturated  with  gas. 

Electrical  Injuries  occur  from  three  causes:  alter- 
nating currents,  direct  currents  and  lightning.  Alter- 
nating currents  seldom  completely  kill  a  tree,  causing 
only  local  burning  at  the  point  of  contact  with  the 
wires.  It  is  true  that  a  large  limb  or  even  the  top  of  a 
tree  may  be  killed  by  the  branches  being  burned  off, 
but  it  would  require  an  exceptionally  high  potential  to 
affect  a  tree  as  a  whole. 

Do  Not  Attach  Wires  to  a  Tree. — Sometimes  a  tree 
may  be  injured  a  few  feet  below  the  point  of  contact 
with  the  wire,  but  that  is  all.     There  is  always  danger 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


225 


In  allowing  any  alternat- 
ing current  wires  to  be  at- 
tached to  a  tree. 

Direct  Currents  are 
probably  the  more  dan- 
gerous of  the  two,  as  a 
direct  current  seems  to 
have  a  characteristic 
physiological  effect  upon 
protoplasm  and  causes 
disintegration  of  the  cells. 
It  is  believed  that  a  direct 
current  can  kill  a  tree  even 
if  its  strength  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  cause  burning,  al- 
though it  sometimes  does 
cause  local  burning,  as 
with  the  alternating  cur- 
rent. These  injuries  usu- 
ally occur  from  the  di- 
rect currents  from  trolley 
lines,  and  instances  have 
been  known  where  the 
trunk  of  the  tree  has  been 
girdled  to  the  distance  of 
ten  feet  or  more  from  the 
base  by  leakage  from  trol- 
ley lines,  and  trees  have 
died  from  electrocution. 

Effect  of  Lightning. — 
It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  lightning  affects  trees 
In  different  ways,  and  It  is 
surmised  that  some  trees 
are  more  susceptible  than 
others,  but  little  is  known 
aboutthls.  Feeble  lightning 
strokes  often  cause  ridges  on  trees,  and  in  such  cases 
the  discharge  affects  only  a  small  part  of  the  vital  layer. 


'■  \^'i^*?;\i|H'^ 

t 

i 

J^  1 

hi 

'-;>        . 

MAPLE    TREE,    KILLED    BY    DIRECT 
CURRENT. 


226  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Less  common  are  earth  discharges,  which  occur  when 
the  electrical  conditions  of  the  clouds  and  the  earth 
change  their  potential  from  negative  to  positive,  the 
lightning  stroke  passing  from  the  ground  up  through 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  its  limbs,  discharging  at  the 
apices  of  the  leaves. 

Exercise. — Try  to  find  some  trees  that  have  been  injured  by  gas 
or  electricity.  Do  these  trees  appear  as  described  in  this  text  ?  Make 
a  list  of  the  trees  on-  one  of  your  principal  streets  that  have  tele- 
phone or  telegraph  wires  attached  or  running  through  their  branches. 
How  would  you  remedy  this  condition? 


Section  XXXIII. — Ornamental  Trees  and 
Shrubs. 

By  Prof.  Charles  A.  Keffer, 
Department  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry,  University  of  Tennessee. 

Adaptability  is  Important. — In  every  section  of  the 
country  one  may  find  trees  and  shrubs  especially 
adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate,  and  these  have  always 
the  beauty  of  health  and  vigor.  The  amateur  gar- 
dener, in  his  desire  for  variety  and  rarity,  is  apt  to 
search  the  catalogues  for  foreign  plants,  without  re- 
gard to  the  locality  whence  they  come.  People  of  the 
plains,  seeing  beautiful  pictures  of  rhododendron  and 
leucothoe  (low  evergreen  shrub),  determine  to  buy 
them  for  their  gardens.  Their  home  is  in  the  moun- 
tains where  the  air  is  cool  and  fogs  are  frequent,  and 
when  transplanted  to  the  plains  they  become  sickly  and 
seldom  make  vigorous  plants.  So  it  is  unwise  to  trans- 
fer natives  of  swamps  and  wet  soils  generally  to  dry 
locations,  or  in  any  way  to  change  seriously  the  natural 
conditions  of  soil  arid  climate  to  which  a  plant  is  ac- 
customed. 

Select  Local  Hardy  Forms. — Fortunately,  the  more 
common  trees  and  shrubs  used  in  ornamental  planting 
succeed  under  a  wide  range  of  conditions.  They  have 
become  common  largely  through  their  hardiness  and 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


227 


vigor.  The  beginner  in  gardening  will  do  well  to  con- 
fine his  selections  to  hardy  forms,  such  as  grow  in  his 
locality,  or  in  regions  which  he  knows  to  be  similar  to 
his  own.  As  a  rule  one  may  more  safely  transfer 
plants  from  the  North  to  the  South  than  from  the 
South  to  the  North,  but  this  is  not  the  universal  rule. 
The  long  summers  of  the  South  are  as  trying  to  some 


PAMPAS  GRASS  AS  AN  ORNAMENT  FOR  GROUNDS. 

Northern    plant    forms    as    are    the    cold   winters    to 
Southern, 

Individuality  Must  Be  Considered. — Every  tree  has 
its  own  individuality,  which  fits  it  for  certain  uses  and 
locations.  The  lombardy  poplar  grows  slender  and 
tall,  and  the  willow  oak  is  a  spreading  tree.  The  mag- 
nolia and  the  holly  are  both  evergreen  and  are  broad- 
leaved,  but  how  different  their  appearance!  So,  too, 
the  flowering  shrubs  vary  greatly  in  form  and  foliage 
as  well  as  in  flowering  habit.  Some  are  compact  and 
shapely,  like  the  Thunberg  barberry,  others  are  of 
graceful  drooping  habit,  like  the  Van  Houtei  Spiraea, 
while  the  thick  upright  prickly  stems  of  the  Aralia  have 


228 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


a  totally  different  form.  Not  only  the  adaptability 
and  the  color  of  the  flowers  and  foliage,  but  the  form 
of  the  woody  plants,  must  be  carefully  studied  if  they 
are  to  be  used  to  advantage. 

Changes  in  Appearance  of  Plants. — There  is,  fur- 
thermore, the  changing  appearance  of  each  plant  with 

the  change  of  the  season 
to  be  considered.  During 
midsummer,  when  every 
plant  is  in  full  leaf,  one 
takes  little  note  of  the 
evergreens  as  a  class,  but 
in  winter,  when  most  of 
the  flowering  trees  and 
shrubs  have  dropped  their 
foliage,  every  evergreen 
in  the  grounds  becomes 
conspicuous.  They  then 
show  their  usefulness, 
especially  if  planted  to 
screen  unsightly  objects 
from  view.  In  spring, 
when  a  host  of  shrubs  are 
in  full  bloom,  one  does 
not  notice  the  inconspicu- 
ous flowers  of  callicarpa  (species  of  shrubs  or  trees), 
but  in  November  its  purple  berried  sprays  are  among 
the  most  attractive  features  of  the  garden.  It  is  not 
until  winter  that  one  can  admire  the  red  twigs  of  the 
ozier  dogwood,  and  the  many  bright-fruited  plants  that 
brighten  the  shrubbery  border  throughout  the  dull 
season. 

Autumn  Color,  too,  is  easily  provided  in  every  gar- 
den if  the  gardener  will  study  the  foliage  of  trees  and 
shrubs.  In  the  North  and  in  the  limestone  regions  of 
the  middle  South,  the  hard  maples  are  gorgeous  in 
their  autumn  dress.  Sweet  gum  and  black  gum,  sour 
wood  and  sumac  give  rich  reds  and  bronzes  before 
their  leaves  fall,  while  every  tree  and  shrub  welcomes 


JAPONICA,  AN  ORNAMENTAL  SHRUB. 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


229 


the  rest  season  by  some  change  from  the  green  of  its 
summer  dress. 

Beauties  in  Every  Season. — Even  in  winter  beau- 
ties appear  that  are  not  suspected  in  the  full  leafage 
of  summer.  The  oak,  the  walnut  and  the  beech 
spread  their  naked  branches  against  the  winter  sky, 
each  with  its  own  distinctive  form  and  winter  color. 
So  we  find,  at  every  season,  something  of  interest  in 
the  trees  and  shrubs. 

Lists  of  Woody  Plants. — The  following  are  a  few 
lists  of  woody  plants;  it  is  not  a  complete  list,  for  there 
is  hardly  a  tree  or  shrub  in  all  the  world  that  may  not 
find  its  proper  place  in  somebody's  garden.  These 
lists  are  only  suggestive;  every  student  can  make  ad- 
ditions or  changes  to  adapt  the  list  to  his  own  neigh- 
borhood. 


Tall  Trees,  More  or  Less  Slender: 
Deciduous : 

Lombardy  Poplar. 
Carolina  Poplar. 
Black  Gum. 
European  Larch. 
Evergreen : 

Lawson's  Cypress. 
Arbor  Vitae. 

Tall  Round-Headed  Trees : 
Deciduous : 

Hard  Maple. 

Red  Maple. 

Silver  Maple. 

White  Oak. 

Red  Oak. 
Evergreen : 

The  Pines. 

Tall  Spreading  Trees : 
White  Elm. 
The  Birches. 
Black  Walnut. 
Catalpa. 

Spiral  Shaped  Trees : 
Deciduous : 

Ginkgo. 
Evergreen : 

Hemlock. 

The  Spruces. 


American  Larch. 
Bald  Cypress. 
Horse  Chestnut. 
Linden. 

Red  Cedar  (eastern  form). 


Pin  Oak. 
Poplar  (Tulip). 
Beech. 
White  Ash. 
Cucumber. 

Magnolia. 

Paulownia. 

Chestnut. 

Sycamore. 


The  Firs. 


230 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Small  Flowering  Trees : 
Dogwood. 
Wild  Plum. 
Red  Bud. 
Crab  Apple. 

Tall  Flowering  Trees : 

Horse  Chestnut. 

Catalpa. 

Paulownia. 

Black  Wild  Cherry. 

Nut-Bearing  Trees : 

Black  Walnut. 
Shell-Bark  Hickory. 
Chestnut. 


Hawthorn. 
Fringe  Tree. 
Juneberry. 
Choke-cherry, 

Black  Locust. 
Tulip  Poplar. 
Magnolia. 


Pecan. 
Butternut. 


Evergreen  Shrubs  and  Small  Trees : 
Broad-Leaved : 

Holly.  Buddlea. 

Box. 

Euonymus — Spindle  Tree,  Burning  Bush,  Strawberry  Bush. 


Kalmia. 
Rhododendron. 
Needle-  or  Spine-Leaved : 
Chinese  Arbor  Vitae. 
Yew. 


Mahonia. 


Dwarf  Junipers   (several  species). 
Dwarf  Pine. 


Retinisporas  (several  species) — a  genus  of  conifers. 


Deciduous  Flowering  Shrubs  (named 
Yellow : 

Jasminum  Nudiflorum. 

Forsythia. 

Scotch  Broom. 
Pink  and  Red,  all  shades : 

Flowering  Almonds. 

Pinxter  Flower — Azalea. 

Red  Bud. 

Tartarian  Honeysuckle. 

Flowering  Quince. 

Double-Flowering  Peach. 

Weigelia  (in  variety). 

Althea — Rose  of  Sharon. 
Lilac  and  Blue  Shades : 

Lilac   (in  variety). 

Amorpha  (Indigo  Shrub). 

Caryopteris  (Blue  Spiraea). 
White : 

Dwarf  Juneberry. 

Flowering  Dogwood. 

White  Flowering  Almond 

White  Fringe. 

Pearl  Bush. 

Silver  Bell. 


in  order  of  blooming)  : 

Flowering  Currant. 

Kerria. 

Witch  Hazel. 

Spiraea  A.  Waterer, 
Spiraea  Douglasi, 
Spiraea  Billardii, 
Tamarisk.  "^ 

Roses  (in  variety). 
Double-Flowering  Thorn. 
Wild  Crab  Apple. 


cq: 


White  Lilac. 

Spiraea  Thunbergii.  )  ^^ 
Spiraea  Van  Houtei,  (.  -S  g 
Spiraea    Reevesiana  ('S^ 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN.  231 

BSSa  aet'a  h-W^  Mock  Orange. 

Mock  Orange. 
Hydrangea. 

Spiraea  Sorbifolia — Bridal  Wreath. 
Brown : 

Calycantlius   (Sweet  Shrub). 
Pawpaw. 

Small  Trees  and  Shrubs  Bearing  Ornamental  Fruits: 

Lonicera  Morrowi  (red)  ^^  Hnnpv<;nrW1p 

Lonicera  Tartarica   (yellow  and  red)     J  honeysuckle. 
Rhus  Cotinus   (Smoke  Bush). 
Rosa  Rugosa  (red) — Hedge  Rose. 
Berberis — in  variety — (red) — Barberry. 
Callicarpa  (purple). 
Flowering  Dogwood  (red). 
Rhus  Typhina  (red) — Staghorn  Sumach. 
Symphoricarpus     Racemosus     (white) — Snowberry;     Wax- 
berry. 
Holly  (red). 

Small  Trees  and  Shrubs  with  Unusual  Foliage : 
Rhus  Laciniata  (cut-leaved  Sumac). 
Aralia    Spinosa    (very    large    decompound   leaves) — Devil's 

Walking  Stick. 
Japanese  Maples   (cut-leaved  and  red-leaved). 
Elsegnus  Augustifolia  (whitish-green  leaves) — Oleaster. 
Golden  Elder  (yellow-leaved — green  toward  fall). 
Golden  Mock  Orange   (yellow-leaved — green  toward  fall). 
Golden  Spiraea  (yellow-leaved). 

Populus  Alba   (under  side  of  leaf,  white) — White  Poplar. 
Prunus  Pessardi   (purple-leaved  plum). 
Fagus  Sylvatica  Riversii   (purple-leaved  beech). 
Cut-leaved  Maple. 
Cut-leaved  Birch. 

Small  Trees  and  Shrubs  with  Bright-Colored  Bark : 
White  Birch. 
Golden  Willow. 
Cornus   Sibirica — Red-twigged  Dogwood. 

Exercise. — Make  a  plan  of  a  beautiful  laid-out  home  grounds  of 
your  town,  naming  the  trees  and  shrubs  as  far  as  possible.  Make 
a  list  of  the  principal  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs  common  to  your 
neighborhood. 

The  teacher  should  select  some  home  that  is  unattractive  because 
of  the  lack  or  improper  arrangement  of  ornamental  trees  and  shrubs, 
and  have  the  students  write  their  ideas  on  how  to  improve  such  a 
place. 


232  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Section  XXXIV.— The  Garden. 

By  Prof.  Charles  A.  Keffer, 
Department  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry,  University  of  Tennessee. 

Garden  is  a  word  of  larger  meaning  than  is  gener- 
ally given  it;  for  most  people  have  in  mind  a  place  to 
grow  vegetables  when  they  speak  of  the  garden.  In 
its  larger  meaning  it  includes  not  only  vegetables, 
fruits  and  flowers,  but  the  lawn  as  well.  Such  a  gar- 
den is  best  made  in  the  country,  where  there  is  plenty 
of  room,  but  even  a  small  city  lot  may  grow  grass, 
flowers  and  vegetables,  and  in  every  small  town  there 
should  be  room  in  every  yard  for  all  the  things  that 
belong  in  a  good  garden. 

A  Garden  should  Serve  Its  Purpose. — Every  well- 
planned  garden  should  serve  fully  the  purposes  for 
which  it  was  made.  The  vegetable  section  must  yield 
an  abundance  of  the  best  products,  in  great  variety, 
and  throughout  the  year.  In  the  South  there  must  bfi 
no  season  when  the  garden  does  not  provide  food  for 
the  gardener.  In  the  North  the  garden  must  perforce 
be  idle  through  the  winter  months,  and  so,  in  the  grow- 
ing season,  the  Northern  gardener  must  cultivate  root 
crops  and  vegetables  for  canning,  besides  those  to  be 
used  from  day  to  day. 

Fruit  Garden. — In  the  fruit  garden  care  must  be 
taken  to  select  only  those  varieties  that  succeed  in  the 
locality,  and  for  this  reason  the  fruit  gardens  in  differ- 
ent sections  of  the  country  differ  greatly.  Everywhere 
there  may  be  strawberries,  but  in  many  parts  of  the 
South  currants  will  not  grow,  while  in  the  Dakotas  it  is 
diflicult  to  grow  blackberries  and  grapes. 

Flower  Garden. — Everywhere  the  flower  garden 
may  be  made  to  yield  great  crops  of  bloom,  but  as  with 
fruits  the  gardener  must  be  careful  to  choose  varieties 
adapted  to  his  soil  and  climate.  And  every  garden 
may  contain  a  lawn,  even  though  it  be  but  a  few  square 
feet  in  extent,  and  the.  lawn  will  be  beautiful  and  sat- 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN.  233 

isfying  In  exact  proportion  to  the  taste  displayed  in 
planning  it  and  the  perfection  of  its  care.  So  we  find 
in  the  garden  a  subject  for  careful  study  and  a  place 
for  good  work. 

How  to  Plan  a  Garden. — In  planning  a  garden  all 
its  possible  uses  and  the  work  necessary  to  their  ful- 
fillment must  be  kept  in  mind.  The  vegetable  and 
fruit  departments  should  be  convenient  both  to  the 
kitchen  and  the  barn.  As  far  as  possible  the  rows 
should  be  long  and  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  use 
of  horse  cultivators.  A  wagon  gate  should  permit  of 
passage  from  barnyard  to  garden,  so  that  manure  and 
the  larger  implements  of  tillage  can  be  most  economi- 
cally used.  The  permanent  plants,  such  as  grapes, 
blackberries,  raspberries,  asparagus,  rhubarb,  horse 
radish  and  Globe  artichoke  should  be  planted  in  con- 
tiguous rows,  and  next  to  these  should  be  placed  straw- 
berries, and  then  such  vegetables  as  sweet  corn,  celery, 
potatoes,  beans  and  peas,  which  are  to  be  cultivated 
with  the  horse  hoe.  The  root  and  salad  vegetables, 
such  as  lettuce,  onions,  beets,  carrots,  etc.,  will  thus  be 
brought  together,  since  they  require  hand  or  wheel 
hoes.  By  this  arrangement  the  vegetable  land  can  be 
plowed  without  disturbing  the  fruits.  The  unit  of  dis- 
tance between  rows  should  be  15  inches  or  its  multiple. 
The  wheel  hoe  can  be  run  easily  between  rows  planted 
15  inches  apart;  the  horse  hoe  can  be  used  between 
rows  30  inches  apart.  Lima  beians  and  large  varieties 
of  corn  need  more  room,  and  may  be  planted  in  rows 
45  inches  apart.  Celery,  to  be  blanched  with  earth, 
needs  75  inches,  the  brambles  should  have  at  least  90 
inches,  and  the  grapes  will  need  150  inches. 

The  Vegetable  Garden  should  be  far  more  useful 
than  it  is.  Most  gardeners  make  a  single  sowing  of 
each  vegetable  they  grow,  while  even  in  the  coldest 
regions  the  season  of  every  vegetable  can  be  prolonged 
by  repeated  sowings.  In  Tennessee  one  may  have  to- 
matoes from  late  June  to  October.  Instead  of  one 
crop  a  year  the  same  plat  may  be  made  to  produce 


234  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

from  two  to  four  crops.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
the  South,  where  the  hardiest  vegetables,  such  as  cab- 
bage, can  be  grown  during  the  winter  months.  Of 
course  there  is  a  limit  to  the  season  of  every  vegetable, 
but  very  few  gardeners  even  approach  this  limit. 

A  Screen  should  Separate  the  Gardens. — The  flower 
garden  should  be  near  the  vegetables,  for  convenience 
in  working.  But  the  flower  garden  is  for  ornament, 
and  the  vegetable  garden  is  not  supposed  to  be  beau- 
tiful, so  one  should  make  a  screen  between  them.  A 
grape  arbor  would  make  a  fine  screen  in  summer,  but 
the  vines  are  bare  in  winter,  and  the  ornamental  gar- 
den should  be  as  beautiful  as  it  can  be  made  through- 
out the  year.  The  screen  should  be  evergreens, 
or,  if  the  garden  is  very  elaborate,  the  food-plants 
should  be  separated  from  the  lawn  by  a  stone  wall 
against  which  a  pergola  may  be  built.  In  the  South 
the  evergreen  screen  may  be  of  broad-leaved  trees  and 
shrubs,  such  as  holly,  euonymus,  mahonia  and  wild 
olive,  and  where  the  air  is  moist  enough  rhododen- 
drons and  kalmia  can  be  used.  But  in  the  North  only 
conifers  as  the  hardy  pines,  hemlock,  spruces  and  arbor 
vitass  should  be  used.  No  large  growing  trees  should 
find  place  in  this  screen  planting,  for  they  shade  the 
gardens  too  much. 

A  Background  for  the  Flowers. — A  clipped  hedge, 
or  one  of  mixed  planting,  will  make  a  good  background 
for  the  flowers,  which  are  to  be  set  in  regular  beds  of 
simple  shape  on  the  lawn  side  of  the  screen. 

Location  of  Flower  Garden  and  Lawn. — The 
flower  garden  should  be  at  one  side  of  the  lawn,  and 
the  lawn  should  be  as  large  as  possible,  carpeted  with 
perfect  grass  and  adorned  with  trees  and  flowering 
shrubs.  The  lawn  should  surround  the  dwelling,  but 
by  all  means  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  part  of  it 
should  be  at  one  side  or  to  the  rear  of  the  house,  and 
thus  make  this  part  so  secluded  from  street  or  high- 
way that  it  will  be  like  a  great  out-of-door  living  room. 

The  Lawn. — Good  grass  is  the  foundation  of  every 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN. 


235 


lawn.  It  is  the  floor,  and  the  trees  and  shrubs  and 
flowers  and  seats  are  the  furniture.  In  the  far  South 
Bermuda  is  the  best  grass  for  lawns,  but  wherever  it 
can  be  made  to  grow,  Kentucky  blue  grass  is  preferable. 
The  land  should  be  made  smooth,  and  enriched  with 
lime  'and  well-rotted  manure  or  other  fertilizer.  If 
the  space  is  small  it  may  be  sodded,  but  if  large  it  will 
be  cheaper  to  use  seed.     Blue  grass  seed  is  light,  and 


M^'SP:^t 


^m_^  "^^^ 


SCREEN    OF   GRASSES   FOR    A    GARDEN. 


it  should  be  sown  thick.  Sow  lengthwise,  crosswise 
and  on  both  diagonals  in  order  to  get  an  even  stand, 
and  from  four  to  six  bushels  per  acre  can  be  used  to 
advantage.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  winter,  but 
the  land  is  best  prepared  in  the  fall.  If  Bermuda  is 
used  quickest  results  can  be  had  by  setting  the  plants 
in  rows  or  small  blocks  about  a  foot  apart. 

Selection  and  Site  of  Trees  to  Provide  Shade. — 
Most  of  the  planting  of  the  lawn  should  be  near  its 
borders,  and  the  greatest  care  is  necessary  in  the  choice 
and  placing  of  trees.     Since  the  lawn  is  most  enjoyed 


236  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

in  the  afternoon,  whenever  possible  let  the  larger  area 
be  on  the  east  side  of  the  house.  When  this  cannot  be 
done,  the  greater  part  of  the  trees  should  be  near  the 
west  side,  to  provide  shade. 

The  Privacy  of  the  lawn  is  best  secured  by  massing 
shrubbery  near  its  boundaries,  especially  on  the  street 
sides.  This  shrubbery  border,  like  the  flower  garden, 
may  be  so  planted  as  to  have  something  in  bloom 
throughout  the  year,  from  the  yellow  jasmines  of 
earliest  spring  to  the  witch  hazel  of  November. 
Lilac,  snowball,  mock  orange,  hybiscus,  hydrangea, 
deutzia,  the  spiraeas,  and  a  long  list  of  other  flowering 
shrubs,  may  find  place  in  the  shrubbery  border,  adding 
to  its  variety  and  beauty.  But  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  shrubs  are  in  bloom  only  a  little  while,  but 
they  are  in  leaf  for  months,  so  particular  attention 
should  be  paid  to  foliage  effects.  The  shape  and  tint- 
ing of  the  leaves  is  of  even  more  importance  than  the 
flowers. 

The  Shrubbery  Border  must  vary  in  width  and  in 
height.  Wherever  an  unsightly  object  appears  it 
should  be  screened  from  view  from  the  lawn  by  making 
the  planting  wide,  and  using  dense  and  high  growing 
forms.  Small  trees  like  dogwood,  wild  plum  and  holly 
may  find  place  here. 

A  Garden  should  be  Simple. — Few  things  are  more 
displeasing  than  a  room  crowded  with  many  kinds 
of  furniture  and  ornaments.  A  home  loses  its  charm 
when  it  becomes  a  museum,  however  great  the  quality 
and  number  of  the  curios.  So  with  a  garden.  It 
should  suggest  simplicity  and  coziness.  It  should  be 
a  place  of  sunshine  and  of  pleasant  shade.  There 
should  be  broad  stretches  of  grass  where  the  shadows 
of  its  trees  may  have  full  play.  To  be  too  full  of 
trees  and  shrubs  is  quite  as  grave  a  fault  as  to  be  bare. 

House  and  Garden  Make  the  Home. — And  every 
garden,  like  every  dwelling,  should  reflect  the  taste 
and  individuality  of  its  owner.  House  and  garden 
together  constitute  the  home,   and  they  are   entitled 


TREES  AND  THE  GARDEN.  237 

equally  to  the  care  of  the  home  makers.  Let  the  gar- 
den be  well  supplied  with  fruits  and  vegetables,  but 
let  it  be  equally  well  furnished  as  to  beauty;  give  it  a 
good  lawn  and  flowers,  and  thus  make  this  part  of  the 
home  complete. 

Exercise. — What  vegetables,  flowers,  fruits  and  berries  are  raised 
in  the  gardens  of  your  locality?  State  the  time  and  methods  of 
planting  the  various  vegetables  and  flowers.  What  tools  and  imple- 
ments are  necessary  for  working  the  garden?  Do  any  people  use 
sprayers  in  their  gardens?  What  grass  is  most  used  in  your  section 
for  lawns?  State  how  successful  gardeners  keep  their  lawns  in  good 
condition.  Make  a  plan  of  a  garden  such  as  you  would  enjoy  hav- 
ing. Make  a  list  of  your  favorite  flowering  plants  and  state  when 
they  bloom  and  the  color  of  their  flowers. 

The  teacher  should  take  the  class  to  some  garden  in  the  section 
and  require  the  pupils  to  make  notes  of  the  various  features  of  suc- 
cessful gardening  as  described  in  this  article.  Send  for  some  garden 
magazines  and  plantsmen's  catalogues  in  which  will  be  listed  and 
pictured  hosts  of  vegetables,  flowers,  trees  and  shrubs. 


REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING. 

Trees  and  the  Garden. 
Fruit  Trees  : 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1895 — Principles  of  pruning  and  care  of  wounds  in  woody 
plants. 
•  1896— Improvement  of  our  native  fruits. 

1902 — Top  working  of  orchard  trees. 

1908 — Promising  new  fruits. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

38-80-208-276 — Peach. 

113-153-161  -208-233-243-247-283 — Apples. 

113 — The  apple  and  how  to  grow  it. 

141 — Apple  culture  in  Vermont. 

181 — Pruning. 

238 — Citrus  fruit  growing  in  the  Gulf  States. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

59 — Illinois — Orchard  management. 

^^ — Georgia — The  fig  in  Georgia. 

98-99-100-101 — Virginia — Orchard  technique. 

139 — Colorado — Pruning  native  fruit  trees. 

219 — New  Jersey — The  first  season  with  the  peach  orchard. 

262 — New  York — Cornell — Apple  survey  of  Niagara  County. 

Nut  Trees  : 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

114 — Chestnuts;  cultivation  and  food  value. 

124 — Pecan  culture. 

332 — Nuts  and  their  uses  as  food. 


238  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 
69 — Louisiana — Pecans. 
85 — Florida — Second  report  on  pecan  culture. 

Forest  Trees  : 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1895 — The  relation  of  forests  to  farms. 

1895 — Tree  planting  in  Western  plains. 

1896 — The  uses  of  wood. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

67 — Forestry  for  farms. 

134 — Tree  planting  in  rural  school  grounds. 

173-358 — Primer  of  forestry. 

276— Suggestions  for  the  management  of  the  farm  wood-lot. 
Bureau  of  Forestry  Publications,  Nos. : 

97 — The  timber  supply  of  the  United  States. 

117 — Preservation  treatment  of  fence  posts. 

130 — Forestry  in  public  schools. 

145 — Forest  planting  on  the  Northern  prairies. 

Ornamental  and  Shade  Trees  : 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

134 — Tree  planting  in  rural  school  grounds. 
210 — Injuries  to  shade  trees. 
360 — Street  trees. 

367 — Lightning  and  lightning  conductors. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

17 — Missouri — Circular — The    planting    and    care    of   shade 

trees. 
105 — Texas — Notes  on  forest  and  ornamental  trees. 
125 — Massachusetts — Shade    trees. 

256 — New    York — Cornell — Street    trees ;    their    care    and 
preservation. 

The  Garden  : 

Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1902 — Plants  as  a  factor  in  home  adornment. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

35-149-244-365— Potato. 

61-84-233-259 — Asparagus. 

105-289 — Beans. 

1 33- 1 69-282 — Celery. 

134 — Tree  planting  on  rural  school  grounds. 

149 — Arrangement  of  the  farmers'  vegetable  garden. 

176- 1 78-22  r — Cranberries. 

181 — Pruning. 

185 — Beautifying  the  home  grounds. 

186-220-225-296-— Tomatoes. 

198-210 — Strawberries. 

203 — Canned  fruits,  preserves  and  jellies. 

204 — The  cultivation  of  mushrooms. 

208 — Varieties  of  fruits  recommended  for  planting. 

210 — Effect  of  shading  vegetables. 

218 — The  school  garden. 

231 — Spraying  for  cucumber  and  melon  diseases. 

232 — Okra;  its  culture  and  uses. 


TREES   AND   THE   GARDEN.  239 

233-354 — Onion  culture. 

248 — The  lawn. 

254 — Cucumbers. 

255 — The  home  vegetable  garden. 

256 — ^Preparation  of  vegetables  for  the  table. 

295 — Potatoes  and  other  root  crops. 

324 — Sweet  potatoes. 

359 — Canning  vegetables  at  home. 
Books  : 

The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing — Bailey — The  Macmillan  Co., 

New  York  City. 
The    Pruning    Book — Bailey — The    Macmillan    Co.,    New    York 

City. 
The  Am.erican  Apple  Orchard — Waugh — Orange  Judd  Co.,  New 

York  City. 
The  Pecan  and  Its  Culture — Hume — The  American  Fruit  and 

Nut  Journal — Petersburg,  Va. 
North  American  Trees — Britton — Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York 

City. 
Art  Out  of  Doors — Van  Rensselaer — C.  Scribner's   Sons,  New 

York  City. 
How  to  Plant  the  Home  Grounds — Parsons — Doubleday,  Page 

&  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Landscape   Gardening — Waugh — Orange   Judd   Co.,   New   York 

City. 
Principles  of  Vegetable  Gardening — Bailey — The  Macmillan  Co., 

New  York  City. 
Garden  Making — Bailey — Grosset  &  Dunlap,  New  York  City. 
How    To    Make    a    Vegetable    Garden — Fullerton — Doubleday, 

Page  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

PLANT    DISEASES. 
Section  XXXV. — Causes  of  Plant  Diseases. 

By  Prof.  .H.  R.  Fulton, 
Department  of  Botany,  Pennsylvania  State  College. 

Plants  suffer  from  diseases  arising  from  many 
causes.  Sometimes  there  is  a  natural  tendency  to  weak 
or  abnormal  development;  often  the  life  or  usefulness 
of  a  plant  is  threatened  by  unfavorable  surroundings, 
such  as  starvation,  heat,  cold,  drought  and  excessive 
moisture.  In  many  cases  the  injury  results  from  the 
attacks  of  living  animals  or  plants. 

Fungi. — A  plant  or  an  animal  that  gets  its  food  di- 
rectly from  the  tissues  of  another  living  animal  or 
plant  is  a  parasite;  and  the  animal  or  plant  upon  which 
it  feeds  is  the  host.  Parasitic  plants  belong  for  the 
most  part  to  the  group  of  fungi;  these  are  plants  of 
low  order,  which  differ  from  the  better  known  higher 
plants  in  size,  form,  and  general  life  habits.  The 
largest  fungi  are  the  toadstools  and  puffballs,  the 
smallest  are  the  bacteria,  and  between  these  extremes 
are  the  various  molds,  mildews,  rusts,  etc.  While 
many  of  these  can  be  detected  with  the  unaided  eye, 
the  compound  microscope  is  needed  for  the  accurate 
observation  of  all  but  the  largest  forms. 

Structure  of  Fungi. — Fungi  have  no  roots,  stems  or 
leaves.  Their  bodies  usually  consist  of  fine,  branch- 
ing, whitish  threads  that  often  increase  in  length  with 
great  rapidity.  A  mass  of  these  threads  is  termed  the 
mycelium.  The  bacteria  have  bodies  consisting  of 
single  short  cells,  or  a  row  of  only  a  few  cells,  and  are 

240 


PLANT    DISEASES. 


241 


FUNGUS   ON   A   LINDEN. 


not  usually  thread-like.  The  conspicuous  caps  of 
such  forms  as  toadstools  are  made  up  of  many  twisted 
and  interwoven  threads,  something  like  the  fibers  of 
a  rope. 

Food  of  Fungi. — Fungi  have  no  green  chlorophyll, 
which  is  characteristic  of  higher  plants,  and  so  it  is  im- 
possible for  them  to  manufacture  their  food  from  sim- 
ple substances;  they  must  depend,  as  do  animals,  upon 
the  elaborated  food  found  in  the  bodies  of  animals  or 
higher   plants.     While   parasitic    forms    obtain    their 


242  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

food  from  liv-ing  hosts,  a  majority  of  fungi,  known  as 
saprophytes,  live  upon  decaying  vegetable  or  animal 
matter.  Infection  of  a  host  takes  place  when  the  para- 
site begins  to  secure  its  food  from  it. 

Reproduction  of  Fungi. — Fungi  are  reproduced  by 
spores  which  under  favorable  conditions  develop  into 
new  plants  similar  to  the  ones  producing  them,  just  as 
seeds  of  higher  plants  do.  While  fungus  spores  have 
the  same  office  as  seeds,  they  differ  very  much  from 
seeds  in  size,  structure  and  method  of  formation. 
Spores  are  exceedingly  small,  dust-like  particles,  and 
are  simple  in  structure,  consisting  virtually  of  a  single 
cell.     They  are  formed  in  large  numbers,  sometimes 


SECTION    OF    POD    SHOWING    POD    SPOT   FUNGI. 

on  special  branches  of  the  mycelium  which  extend 
freely  In  the  air;  sometimes  in  minute  sunken  cavities. 
Because  of  their  lightness  they  are  readily  scattered 
by  the  air  currents;  and  insects  and  water  often  play 
a  part  in  their  distribution. 

Kinds  of  Spores. — Many  fungi  produce  two  kinds 
of  spores  at  different  times  and  for  different  purposes. 
During  the  period  of  vigorous  growth  there  are  pro- 
duced, in  large  numbers,  spores  that  germinate  quickly, 
but  that  cannot  withstand  unfavorable  conditions; 
these  disseminate  the  fungus  rapidly  and  extensively 
during  the  growing  season,  and  may  be  called  summer 
spores.  As  the  fungus  begins  to  decline  there  are 
formed  in  smaller  numbers  spores  that  will  survive 
exposure  to  extreme  cold  or  dryness;  these  carry  the 
fungus  over  unfavorable  periods,  particularly  the  win- 


PLANT    DISEASES.  243 

ter  season,  and  may  be  called  winter  spores.  The  my- 
celium is  ready  to  form  a  crop  of  summer  spores  within 
a  few  days,  or  at  most  a  few  weeks  from  the  beginning 
of  its  growth,  and  usually  spores  are  produced  more 
or  less  continuously  by  the  fungus  plant  during  its  life. 
Seasonal  and  weather  conditions  influence  the  ger- 
mination of  spores  and  the  growth  of  fungi,  more  evfn 
than  they  influence  the  growth  of  higher  plants.  These, 
along  with  other  conditions,  cause  diseases  due  to  fungi 
to  be  more  prevalent  in  some  seasons  and  in  some  lo- 
calities than  in  others. 

Exercise. — Are  seeds  and  spores  similar?  If  not,  state  the  dif- 
ference in  their  structure.  Bring  some  toadstools,  pufifballs  and 
molds  to  school  and  examine  their  structure.  Do  they  correspond 
to  the  description  given  of  them  in  this  article? 


Section  XXXVI. — Control  of  Fungus  Diseases. 

A  diseased  plant  can  seldom  be  cured;  but  in  most 
cases  it  is  possible  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease 
to  sound  parts  of  the  affected  plant  or  to  other  plants. 
The  fungus  must  be  given  the  least  possible  chance  for 
its  spread  and  growth;  and  at  the  same  time  the  crop 
must  be  given  the  best  chance  for  strong  and  vigorous 
growth. 

Means  of  Control. — The  exact  means  of  control 
will  vary  with  the  crop  and  the  disease,  and  are  best 
considered  in  the  accounts  of  diseases  which  follow. 
Here  may  be  mentioned  proper  cultural  methods  that 
will  produce  a  vigorous  crop,  resistant  to  contagious 
as  well  as  functional  diseases;  rotation  of  crops  that 
will  lessen  or  eradicate  diseases  by  eliminating  their 
host  plants,  except  at  intervals;  the  cleaning  up  and  de- 
stroying of  all  crop  remains  at  the  end  of  the  season, 
thus  lessening  the  chances  for  the  fungus  to  survive  the 
winter;  destruction  of  volunteer  plants  and  weeds  along 
fences  and  roads,  to  control  those  diseases  common 
to  those  and  to  crop  plants,  as  well  as  other  diseases 


244 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


that  persist  and  develop  in  moist  weedy  places;  care- 
ful selection  of  varieties  to  get  those  that  are  most  re- 
sistant to  disease  and  otherwise  satisfactory;  careful 


TOBACCO   PLANTS   FROM   DISEASED   AND   RESISTANT   STRAINS   OF    SEED. 

attention  to  seed  and  nursery  stock  to  be  sure  that  cer- 
tain diseases  are  not  transmitted  through  them;  pre- 
vention of  insect  injury  and  other  wounds  which  open  a 
way  for  infection  by  fungi. 


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CROP   FROM   ONE   TREE    OF    BEN    DAVIS    VARIETY,    SPRAYED    SIX    TIMES. 
SOUND  FRUIT   IN   PILE,    WORMY   FRUIT   IN   BASKET. 


CROP    FROM    ADJACENT    TREE,    UNSPRAYED.      SOUND    FRUIT    AT    RIGHT, 
WORMY   FRUIT   AT  LEFT. 


246 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Fungicides  are  chemical  substances  which  destroy 
the  spores  or  mycelium  of  fungi.  To  be  efficient  the 
fungicide  must  destroy  the  fungus  effectively,  but  must 
not  injure  the  host  plant;  it  must  be  reasonably  cheap 
and  easy  to  prepare  and  apply.  To  kill  a  fungus  the 
fungicide  must  come  in  contact  with  it.  Most  para- 
sitic fungi  are  buried  within  the  bodies  of  their  hosts 
and  cannot  be  reached  by  an  external  application,  and 


HAND-POWER   TANK,    USED    IN    SPRAYING. 

hence  it  is  seldom  that  fungicides  can  be  used  to  effect 
a  cure  by  direct  destruction  of  the  entire  fungus.  The 
usual  use  of  fungicides  is  to  form  a  protective  coating 
over  a  plant  to  prevent  spores  from  germinating  upon 
its  surface,  and  mycelium  from  penetrating  to  its  in- 
terior. To  be  effective  this  covering,  like  a  coat  of 
armor,  must  be  complete  and  constantly  maintained 
during  the  period  of  exposure. 

Spraying. — In  spraying,  as  in  all  other  procedures 
for  the   control  of   fungus   diseases,   success   depends 


PLANT    DISEASES.  247 

upon  the  timeliness  and  the  thoroughness  with  which 
the  work  is  done.  Spraying  is  most  profitable  and 
successful  for  the  diseases  that  infest  their  hosts  at  par- 
ticular periods. 

Preparation  of  Fungicides. — The  chemical  sub- 
stances most  often  used  as  fungicides  are  copper  sul- 
phate or  bluestone,  sulphur,  corrosive  sublimate  and 
formalin.  The  most  generally  useful  fungicide  is 
Bordeaux  mixture.  To  prepare  50  gallons  of  usual 
strength,  5  pounds  of  bluestone  and  5  pounds  of 
freshly  slaked  stone  lime  are  dissolved  separately,  each 
in  25  gallons  of  water.  The  two  solutions  are  poured 
together  while  they  are  stirred  thoroughly.  The  lime 
neutralizes  the  caustic  action  of  the  copper  sulphate, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  injure  leaves  and  fruit. 

Sulphur  Mixtures. — Two  sulphur  mixtures  are  im- 
portant. One  is  the  boiled  lime-sulphur  wash,  gener- 
ally used  against  San  Jose  scale,  but  equally  effective  in 
destroying  fungus  spores.  This  wash  is  too  strong 
to  be  used  on  any  but  dormant  plants.  Fifteen  pounds 
of  sulphur  and  20  pounds  of  lime  are  required  to 
make  50  gallons,  and  the  mixture  is  boiled  for  an 
hour.  Quite  different  in  composition  and.  use  is  the 
self-boiled  lime-sulphur  mixture.  It  requires  8  pounds 
of  sulphur  and  8  pounds  of  lime  for  50  gallons,  and 
it  does  not  require  boiling.  The  lime  is  slaked  with 
cold  water,  and  the  sulphur  added  as  the  slaking  be- 
gins; the  heat  thus  developed  causes  as  much  of  the 
sulphur  as  is  needful  to  go  into  solution.  This  mix- 
ture is  even  safer  to  use  on  foliage  and  fruit  than  the 
Bordeaux  mixture. 

Corrosive  sublimate  and  formalin  are  merely  diluted 
with  water  before  using.  Their  most  important  use  is 
for  disinfecting  seed,  soil,  wounds  or  implements. 

Exercise. — If  any  of  the  members  of  the  class  have  ever  seen 
fungicides  made  and  applied,  be  prepared  to  tell  the  rest  of  the 
class  the  process  and  the  crop  or  crops  which  were  sprayed. 


248 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


APPLE    SCAB. 


Section  XXXVII. — Fruit  Crop  Diseases. 

Apple  Scab. — 
The  fungus  that 
causes  scab  grows 
in  the  skin  of  the 
apple,  causing  the 
waxy  portion  to 
scurf  off,  and  giv- 
ing rise  finally  to 
circular  spots  a 
quarter  of  an 
inch  or  more  in 
diameter.  These 
spots  have  rough, 
brown  centers, 
and  are  sur- 
rounded  by  a 
margin  which  is 
olive  green,  in 
color,  and  consists  of  the  growing  fungus  threads  and 
the  spores.  This  fungus  does  not  rot  the  fruit,  but  it 
furnishes  ready  gate- 
ways for  the  en- 
trance of  other  fungi 
which  do  cause  rot; 
for  this  reason 
scabby  fruit  is  poor 
in  keeping  quality. 
The  scab  fungus  also 
grows,  but  less  con- 
spicuously, on  the 
leaves  and  twigs  of 
an  infected  tree;  and 
in  these,  especially 
on  fallen  leaves  on 
the  ground,  it  re- 
mains   alive    over  ---^ ,  ■ 

winter       Spores    are       bitter  rot  oT!??!^  caused  by  a 
carried  to  the  young  fungus. 


PLANT   DISEASES.  249 

leaves  when  the  buds  burst,  and  so  finally  to  the  form- 
ing fruit.  Scab  can  be  prevented  if  the  young  leaves 
and  fruit  are  protected  with  a  coating  of  a  good  fungi- 
cide, such  as  Bordeaux  mixture,  or  commercial  lime- 
sulphur  wash  diluted  i  in  30.  The  first  spraying 
should  be  made  just  before  the  blossoms  open;  the 
second,  just  as  the  petals  fall;  and  the  third,  ten  days 
or  two  weeks  later. 

Pear  Scab. — This  disease  is  caused  by  a  fungus  much 
like  the  one  causing  apple  scab.  The  spots  on  the 
pear  have  the  appearance  of  sooty  blotches;  and  when 
badly  infected  the  fruit  cracks.  The  fungus  lives 
over  winter  on  infected  leaves  or  twigs.  It  can  be 
controlled  by  three  sprayings  with  Bordeaux  mixture, 
just  as  for  the  apple  scab. 

Pear  Blight. — The  name  fire  blight  is  often  used 
because  of  the  scorched  appearance  of  affected  twigs. 
On  these  the  leaves  blacken  and  die  early  in  the  season, 
but  do  not  fall.  The  disease  is  caused  by  bacteria. 
These  live  over  from  season  to  season  in  the  affected 
larger  limbs,  between  the  bark  and  wood.  In  spring, 
as  the  sap  rises,  drops  of  milky,  sticky  fluid  containing 
myriads  of  bacteria  ooze  out  from  cracks  at  the  boun- 
dary between  dead  and  sound  bark.  Insects  readily 
carry  these  bacteria  on  their  bodies,  and  so  spread  in- 
fection. Bacteria  carried  in  this  way  to  pear  blos- 
soms multiply  very  rapidly  in  the  nectar,  and  work 
down  through  the  flower  stalk  and  fruit  spur  to  the 
limb.  In  time  they  may  girdle  a  large  limb,  killing  it 
by  destroying  the  growing  tissue  between  the  bark  and 
wood.  All  affected  twigs  and  small  limbs  should  be 
cut  away  and  destroyed;  cankers  on  larger  limbs  should 
be  cut  out;  large  wounds  should  be  disinfected  with  cor- 
rosive sublimate  solution,  one  part  in  1,000  parts  of 
water,  and  afterwards  painted.  Culture  that  induces 
rapid,  succulent  growth  should  be  avoided.  Fruit 
spurs  should  be  confined  to  the  smaller  limbs,  which 
can  be  removed,  in  case  of  infection,  with  least  loss  to 
the  tree.  Because  of  the  protected  position  of  the  bac- 
teria spraying  is  of  little  value. 


250  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Potato  Blights. — Under  this  term  are  Included  sev- 
eral different  leaf  troubles.  Two  of  these  are  early- 
blight  and  late  blight.  Besides  these,  there  may  be 
the  shot-hole  injury  to  leaves  caused  by  flea-beetles. 
Spraying  will  protect  from  the  blight  fungi,  if  begun 
in  time  and  thoroughly  done.  For  early  blight,  it 
should  begin  when  the  plants  are  six  or  eight  inches 
high,  two  applications  of  Bordeaux  being  given  two 
weeks  apart;  these  should  be  followed  by  three  or  four 
applications  of  Bordeaux  at  like  intervals.  A  fourth 
trouble,  more  properly  termed  leaf-burn,  is  the  drying 
out  of  leaflets  from  the  tips  and  margins  caused  by  lack 
of  water.  Deep  plowing,  addition  of  humus,  and  fre- 
quent shallow  cultivation  will  tend  to  correct  the  con- 
ditions that  induce  this  trouble. 

Peach  Leaf  Curl. — Affected  leaves  are  swollen  and 
puckered  in  an  irregular  and  characteristic  way;  their 
color  becomes  yellowish-green  or  dull  red.  They  fall 
early  in  the  season,  and  when  a  tree  is  severely  attacked 
it  may  be  practically  defoliated  by  mid-season.  Trees 
affected  with  leaf  curl  do  not  properly  mature  fruit 
during  the  current  season;  or  make  vigorous  wood 
growth;  or  develop  a  full  number  of  good  fruit  buds 
for  the  next  season.  The  fungus  causing  this  disease  in- 
fects the  young  leaves  when  the  buds  break.  It  can  be 
readily  controlled  by  a  single  application  of  a  good  fun- 
gicide made  in  early  spring  just  before  the  buds  begin 
to  swell.  Either  Bordeaux  mixture  or  the  lime-sulphur 
wash  used  commonly  for  scale  insects  is  satisfactory. 

Brown  Rot. — This  is  the  common  rot  which  affects 
peaches,  plums  and  cherries  at  the  time  of  ripening, 
and  most  seriously  in  warm,  wet  weather.  It  is  caused 
by  a  fungus,  the  threads  of  which  grow  rapidly  inside 
the  tissues  of  the  fruit,  and  produce  here  and  there 
over  the  surface  small  ash-colored  tufts  of  spore  bear- 
ing branches.  The  rotted  fruit  often  remains  hanging 
on  the  trees  as  dry  shriveled  mummies  during  the  win- 
ter. The  fungus  threads  in  the  dry  flesh  remain  alive, 
and  during  the  following  spring  may  renew  their 
growth  and  produce  spores  that  infect  the  new  crop. 


PLANT   DISEASES. 


251 


Control  of  Brown  Rot. — Remove  as  far  as  possible 
the  source  of  infection  by  knocking  mummied  fruit 
from  the  trees;  by  clearing  the  ground  of  rotted  fruit; 
by  spraying  the  trees  with  a  good  fungicide  in  early 
spring  before  the  buds  swell;  and  by  picking  decayed 
fruit  as  soon  as  it  appears.     Lessen  the  chances  of  in- 


fection taking  place 
by  planting  non-sus- 
ceptible varieties;  by 
pruning  so  as  to  let 
in  light  and  air  to 
all  fruit-bearing 
branches;  by  thinning 
the  young  fruit ;  by 
keeping  in  check  the 
curculio  and  other  in- 
sects; and  perhaps  by 
spraying  the  fruit. 
Most  fungicides  are  unsafe  to  use  on  peach  and 
Japanese  plum  in  foliage;  but  the  self-boiled  lime- 
sulphur  wash  seems  to  be  a  safe  one  for  this  purpose, 
and  gives  promise  of  being  especially  useful  in  the 
control  of  brown  rot. 

Grape  Black  Rot. — Affected  grape  berries  show  at 
first  brown  decayed  spots;  finally  the  berries  become 

dark  and  shriveled  and 
rough  with  minute 
spore  -  producing  pim- 
ples. The  fungus  also 
attacks  leaves,  tendrils, 
and  even  the  canes  of 
the  grape;  and  these  as 
well  as  the  shriveled 
berries  are  sources  of 
new  infection.  Lessen  sources  of  infection  for  the 
next  season  by  plowing  under  old  leaves  and  berries. 


BROWN  EOT  OF  PEACH. 


GRAPE  BLACK  ROT. 


252  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Keep  down  weeds,  and  trim  and  train  the  vines  so  as 
to  secure  the  best  ventilation.  Spray  thoroughly  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  beginning  when  the  second  or  third 
leaf  shows;  apply  again  before  the  blossoms  open,  and 
a  third  time  soon  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen;  two 
more  applications  at  intervals  of  ten  days  or  two  weeks 
will  be  enough  in  ordinary  seasons.  Watch  the 
weather  closely  and  try  to  make  each  application  a  day 
or  two  before  a  period  of  rainy  weather,  since  infec- 
tion takes  place  at  such  a  time. 

Exercise. — Bring  specimens  of  unhealthy  or  diseased  fruits  to  the 
classroom  and  identify  the  diseases  they  are  affected  with. 

Section  XXXVIII. — Garden  Crop  Diseases. 

Bean  Pod  Spot  or  Anthracnose. — The  fungus  pro- 
duces on  the  pods  of  kidney  beans  spots  of  variable 
size,  with  reddish  borders  and  dark  brown,  sunken 
centers.  On  close  examination  minute  pinkish  masses 
of  spores  may  be  distinguished  scattered  over  some  of 


BEAN   POD    SPOT. 


the  larger  spots.  Seeds  from  badly  infected  pods  are 
apt  to  contain  mycelium,  which  remains  dormant  in  the 
seeds  and  renews  its  growth  as  they  germinate.  It 
produces  brown  spots  and  spores  on  the  seed  and  on 
leaves  of  plants  grown  from  such  infected  seeds;  these 
spores  in  turn  affect  the  young  leaves,  causing  their 
veins  to  become  brown.  In  this  way  large  numbers 
of  spores  are  produced  by  the  time  the  pods  begin  to 
form.  When  seed  absolutely  free  from  infection  can 
be  used  for  planting,  pod  spot  is  not  likely  to  occur; 
such  seed  may  be  had  from  pods  perfectly  free  from 
spot.  Satisfactory  disinfection  of  seed  seems  to  be 
impracticable.     Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mixture  helps 


PLANT   DISEASES.  253 

in  the  control  of  the  disease,  especially  if  the  first  ap- 
plication is  made  when  the  seedlings  emerge  from  the 
ground;  the  second  when  the  first  true  leaves  have  ex- 
panded; and  the  third  when  the  pods  begin  to  form. 

Cabbage  Club  Root. — This  disease  affects  cabbage, 
cauliflower  and  turnip,  as  well  as  a  number  of  other 
plants  belonging  to  the  mustard  family.  It  is  caused 
by  the  growth  within  the  roots  of  a  low  type  of  fungus. 
The  roots,  large  as  well  as  small,  become  swollen  and 
distorted  in  the  peculiar  way  that  suggests  such  com- 
mon names  as  "  finger  and  toe  "  and  "  big  root  "  for 
the  disease.  Affected  plants  may  wilt  and  die  during 
a  period  of  drought,  because  of  the  insufficiency  of  their 
root  systems,  and  in  any  case  the  heads  will  be  stunted. 
The  organism  causing  the  disease  lives  over  for  sev- 
eral years  in  the  soil.  The  most  important  means  of 
control  is  to  grow  only  non-susceptible  crops  on  in- 
fected soil  for  about  four  years.  A  heavy  dressing  of 
lime  thoroughly  worked  into  the  soil  the  preceding  fall 
sometimes  satisfactorily  controls  the  disease.  Ex- 
treme care  must  be  taken  not  to  infect  clean  soil  by  set- 
ting out  plants  that  have  become  infected  in  the  seed 
bed,  or  by  transferring  infected  soil  from  any  source 
on  tools  or  on  the  roots  of  transplants. 

Potato  Scab. — This  disease  is  caused  by  a  thread- 
like fungus  which  grows  in  the  skin  of  the  potato 
tuber,  producing  irregular,  rough,  corky  areas.  The 
fungus  lives  over  from  year  to  year  in  the  soil,  and  in- 
fected soil  should  not  be  planted  to  potatoes  oftener 
than  once  in  three  or  four  years.  The  fungus  flour- 
ishes in  soil  that  is  somewhat  alkaline,  and  for  this  rea- 
son lime,  wood  ashes  and  stable  manure  favor  the  de- 
velopment of  but  do  not  directly  cause  scab.  Most 
commercial  fertilizers  and  green  crops  when  plowed 
under  reduce  scab.  Clean  soils  become  contaminated 
by  planting  infected  seed  potatoes;  these  should  be  dis- 
infected by  soaking  the  uncut  tubers  for  2  hours  in 
a  solution  of  formalin,  i  pint  in  30  gallons  of  water; 
or  of  corrosive  sublimate,  4  ounces  in  30  gallons  of 
water.     The  only  way  to  secure  freedom  frpni  scab 


254  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

is  to  plant  clean  seed  in  clean  ground;  if  either  ground 
or  seed  is  infected,  the  crop  will  be  scabby;  and  the 
amount  of  scab  will  depend  on  the  amount  of  original 


POTATO    SCAB. 


fungus  infection  and  the  favoring  or  retarding  influ- 
ence of  the  surroundings. 

Bacterial  Wilt  of  Cucumber,  Melon  and  Squash.— 
The  first  indication  of  this  disease  is  the  drooping  of 
a  single  leaf  during  the  day,  at  night  it  recovers,  but  is 
more  wilted  the  next  day,  and  is  soon  beyond  recov- 
ery, while  other  leaves  near  by  are  similarly  affected. 
Finally  the  whole  branch  dies.  This  disease  is  caused 
by  the  growth  and  spread  of  bacteria  in  the  sap  tubes 
of  the  plant;  these  reduce  the  supply  of  water  for  parts 
beyond,  and  cause  the  wilting.  If  stem  or  leaf-stalk 
of  an  infected  portion  is  cut  across  and  pressed  be- 
tween the  fingers,  a  milky,  somewhat  sticky  fluid,  con- 
taining bacteria,  will  exude  from  the  sap  tubes,  instead 
of  the  clear  watery  sap.  These  bacteria  are  trans- 
ferred readily  from  diseased  to  healthy  leaves  on  the 
mouth  parts  of  insects.  Since  they  are  well  protected 
in  the  tissues  of  the  plant,  sprays  have  little  or  no  di- 
rect effect  in  checking  the  disease,  but  a  coating  of  Bor- 


PLANT    DISEASES. 


255 


deaux  mixture  makes  the  plants  distasteful  to  the  cu- 
cumber beetle  and  other  carriers  of  the  disease,  and 
for  this  reason  has  a  good  effect  in  controlling  its 
spread.  Affected  portions  of  vines  should  be  promptly 
removed  and  destroyed. 

Exercise. — If  possible  find  some  garden  vegetables  that  do  not 
look  healthy  and  try  to  identify  the  disease  they  are  troubled  with. 
What  would  you  do  to  prevent  these  diseases? 


Section  XXXIX. — Field  Crop  Diseases. 


Grain  Smuts. — According  to 
the  mode  of  infection,  smut 
diseases  of  grain  crops  fall  into 
three  classes,  of  which  loose 
smut  of  oats,  loose  smut  of 
wheat  and  corn  smut  are  com- 
mon examples. 

Loose  Smut  of  Oats  is  con- 
spicuous because  the  grains  are 
converted  into  masses  of  dark, 
dust-like  spores  of  the  fungus. 
These  are  shed  as  the  grain 
ripens,  or  during  harvesting 
and  thrashing;  so  that  seed 
oats  become  well  dusted  with 
them.  When  seed  with  smut 
spores  adhering  are  planted, 
the  spores  germinate  as  the 
seeds  sprout  and  the  fungus 
enters  the  tissues  of  the  tinv 
seedling  oat  plant  before  it  ap- 
pears above  ground.  Infection 
does  not  take  place  at  any  later 
time;  but  the  fungus  already  in 
the  plant  grows  upward  with  it, 
always  hidden,  until  the  plant 
heads  out,  and  conditions  are 
suitable  for  spore  formation. 


SMUT   OF   GRAIN. 


256  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Loose  Smut  of  Wheat  affects  the  heads  in  the  same 
way  as  the  loose  smut  of  oats.  Its  spores  are  shed 
earher,  however,  and  at  harvest  time  only  the  stems 
of  smutted  heads  remain.  Some  of  the  spores  are  car- 
ried by  the  wind  to  the  later  opening  flowers,  and  the 
fungus  enters  the  forming  grains.  These  grains  ripen 
normally,  the  mycelium  becoming  dormant.  When 
they  sprout,  the  mycelium  begins  to  grow  with  the  seed- 
ling wheat,  and  follows  upward  in  the  growing  tip  with- 
out giving  evidence  of  its  presence  until  spores  are 
formed  in  the  head. 

The  Corn  Smut  differs  from  the  loose  smut  of  oats 
and  of  wheat  in  being  able  to  infect  any  soft  tissue  of 
its  host,  in  never  spreading  far  from  the  point  of  infec- 
tion, and  in  maturing  its  spores  a  few  days  after  in- 
fection. These  spores  may  germinate  at  once,  and 
spread  infection  through  the  field;  or  they  may  remain 
alive  over  winter,  and  start  new  infection  the  next  sea- 
son. The  swollen  spore  masses  occur  on  all  above- 
ground  parts  of  corn. 

Hovo  to  Control  Smuts. — When  infection  takes 
place  only  in  the  seedling  stage  from  spores  adhering 
to  the  grains,  smut  can  readily  be  controlled  by  disin- 
fecting the  seed.  Formalin  is  most  frequently  used  in 
a  strength  of  one  pint  to  forty  gallons  of  water.  The 
seed  may  be  sprinkled  in  a  pile  if  shoveled  over  so  that 
every  grain  becomes  thoroughly  wet.  The  pile  must 
be  covered  with  wet  cloths  for  two  hours  to  prevent 
evaporation  of  the  formalin.  Besides  loose  smut  of 
oats,  stinking  smut  of  wheat  or  bunt,  covered  smut  of 
barley,  and  grain  smut  of  sorghum  can  be  successfully 
controlled  by  seed  treatment. 

How  to  Avoid  Smut. — When  infection  takes  place 
at  the  time  of  flowering,  and  the  mycelium  is  dormant 
inside  the  seed,  disinfection  is  unsatisfactory.  To 
reach  effectively  and  destroy  the  mycelium  severe  treat- 
ment is  required,  and  the  grain  is  injured  for  seeding 
purposes.  The  only  way  of  avoiding  smut  in  such 
cases  is  to  secure  seed  from  a  smut-free  locality,  or 


PLANT   DISEASES.  257 

from  a  special  seed  plot,  away  from  the  general  crop, 
from_  which  smutted  heads  are  carefully  removed  as 
soon  as  they  appear.  Such  a  seed  plot  would  also  be 
useful  for  improving  the  quality  of  grain  by  selection. 
Loose  smut  of  wheat  and  loose  smut  of  barley  can  be 
controlled  in  this  way. 

Corn  Smut  stands  alone  In  Its  class.  Its  continued 
spread  during  the  season  can  be  controlled  by  the 
prompt  removal  and  destruction  of  the  first  smut 
masses  before  the  spores  are  shed.  Heavy  dressings 
of  barnyard  manure  on  corn  land  tend  to  Increase  the 
amount  of  smut. 

Grain  Rusts. — The  rust  fungi  attack  leaves  and 
stems  of  cereals.  Orange-colored  summer  spores  are 
quickly  formed  in  elongated  granular  pustules.  They 
spread  the  disease  rapidly  from  plant  to  plant.  Later 
dark  brown  winter  spores  are  produced;  these  may 
carry  the  fungus  over  winter;  but  often  the  rusts  live 
through  the  winter  as  mycelium  in  the  leaves  of  fall 
planted  grain  crops  or  of  protected  wild  grasses. 
While  the  rusts  cause  enormous  loss  each  year,  no  sat- 
isfactory method  of  control  is  known.  It  is  hoped 
that  the  problem  will  be  solved  by  breeding  varieties 
resistant  to  rust.  Such  are  the  so-called  rust-proof 
varieties  of  oats  planted  in  the  South;  but  unfortu- 
nately these  varieties  are  not  satisfactory  In  the  North. 
Since  rust  becomes  worse  from  week  to  week  as  the 
crop  matures,  the  amount  of  loss  can  be  reduced  by 
hastening  maturity.  Low,  moist  situations  should  be 
avoided,  as  well  as  rank  growth,  such  as  results  from 
too  much  nitrogenous  manure. 

Cotton  Wilt,  Black  Rot  or  Black  Heart. — The 
leaves  of  affected  plants,  sometimes  of  a  single  branch, 
wilt  or  turn  yellow  and  fall  off  while  nearby  plants  re- 
main normal.  The  effects  are  most  marked  after  the 
cotton  is  In  bloom.  The  disease  is  due  to  a  fungus 
which  lives  In  the  soil  and  enters  the  roots  of  cotton, 
growing  upward  in  the  water  vessels  of  the  wood  of 
root  and  stem,  clogging  them  and  producing  a  charac- 


258 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


A    FIELD   OF    COTTON   DESTROYED    BY    WILT. 

teristic  brown  discoloration.  The  disease  is  more 
prevalent  in  sandy  or  sandy  loam  soils,  and  spreads 
from  year  to  year  as  long  as  cotton  is  grown.  The 
cotton  wilt  fungus  attacks  only  cotton  and  okra;  and 
the  similar  wilt  of  cowpeas,  of  watermelons,  of  toma- 
toes, and  of  some  other  plants  is  due  in  each  case  to 
a  different  fungus.  On  land  infested  with  cotton  wilt 
a  long  rotation  which  brings  in  cotton  once  in  four  or 


THE    SAME    FIELD    PLANTED    WITH    A    DILLON    VARIETY,     BRED     BY     THE 
U.    S.    DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE    TO    RESIST   THE    WILT. 


PLANT    DISEASES.  259 

five  years  will  greatly  reduce  the  trouble.  Old  stalks 
should  be  removed  from  the  field  at  the  end  of  the 
season.  Varieties  of  cotton  show  a  marked  difference 
in  natural  susceptibility  to  the  disease,  and  by  selection 
the  resistance  can  be  increased.  A  satisfactory  degree 
of  resistance  has  thus  been  developed  in  several  varie- 
ties. 

Cotton  Black  Rust. — This  disease  is  caused  pri- 
marily by  unfavorable  soil  conditions  and  not  by  any 
parasitic  fungus.  Affected  plants  have  a  yellowish 
appearance,  the  leaves  drop  off,  the  later  formed  bolls 
open  poorly,  and  the  lint  yield  is  inferior  in  quantity 
and  quality.  All  plants  in  a  particular  area  show  these 
effects.  Rust  occurs  on  thin  soils  from  which  the 
humus  has  been  exhausted  by  continued  cultivation  of 
cotton,  in  soils  that  are  deficient  in  potash,  and  in  soils 
that  lack  drainage  either  because  of  their  low  situation, 
or  because  of  their  poor  physical  condition.  The 
remedy  for  black  rust  is  soil  improvement.  Humus 
can  be  restored  and  its  physical  condition  improved  by 
fertilizing  with  stable  manure,  or  by  adopting  a  rota- 
tion that  will  bring  in  a  leguminous  crop  that  may  be 
plowed  under.  Drainage  of  low  places  will  be  neces- 
sary. A  deficiency  in  potash  can  be  met  by  applying 
a  proper  commercial  fertilizer. 

Shedding  of  Cotton  Bolls  and  Squares. — Shedding 
is  a  physiological  disease  which  occurs  generally  when 
there  is  a  sudden  check  after  a  period  of  rapid  growth, 
as  when  a  season  of  showery  weather  is  followed  by 
dry,  hot  days.  It  is  an  adjustment  to  the  new,  less 
favorable  conditions.  The  plant  is  not  able  to  develop 
all  of  the  fruitage  begun  under  the  more  favorable  con- 
ditions; and  it  eliminates  the  excess  of  bolls  by  shed- 
ding, giving  the  remaining  ones  a  better  chance  to  ma- 
ture perfectly.  Since  the  shedding  depends  so  largely 
on  weather  conditions,  little  can  be  done  to  prevent  it 
except  to  adopt  such  cultural  practices  as  will  tend  to 
make  the  growth  of  the  crop  uniform.      Cultivation 


26o  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

for  the  conservation  of  moisture  is  the  most  important 
of  these. 

Exercise. — Try  to  find  some  field  crops  affected  with  disease. 
Bring  specimens  to  school  and  be  prepared  to  tell  your  teacher  the 
diseases  and  how  to  prevent  them. 


REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING. 

Plant  Diseases: 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1900 — Fungus  diseases  of  forest  trees. 

1908 — The  development  of  farm  crops  resistant  to  disease. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

91 — Potato  diseases  and  treatment. 

231 — Spraying  for  cucumber  and  melon  diseases. 

243 — Fungicides   and  their   uses    in   preventing   diseases   of 
fruits. 

244 — Fumigation  for  nursery  stock. 

250 — The  prevention  of  wheat  smut  and  loose  smut  of  oats. 

267 — Apple  bitter  rot. 

284 — Insect  and   fungus  diseases  of  the  grape  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

316 — Potato  scab. 

333 — Cotton  wilt. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

54 — Illinois — Spraying  apple  trees  with  special  reference  to 
apple  scab  fungus. 

69 — Illinois — Apple  rots  in  Illinois. 

91 — Florida — Tomato  diseases. 

121 — Ohio — Diseases  of  cultivated  plants. 

239 — N.  Y. — Cornell — Some  diseases  of  beans. 

252 — N.  Y. — Cornell — Insect  pests  and  plant  diseases. 

1903 — Connecticut — Annual  report  of  the  botanist. 
Books: 

Fungus  Diseases  of  Plants — Duggar — Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

The  Spraying  of  Plants — Lodeman — Macmillan  Co.,  New  York 

City. 
Minnesota  Plant  Diseases — Freeman. 
Diseases  of  Plants — Tubeuf  &  Smith — Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 

New  York  Citv. 


CHAPTER   VII. 


INSECTS   AND    BIRDS. 
Section  XL. — What  an  Insect  Is. 

By  Prof.  Glenn  W.  Herrick. 
Department  of   Entomology,    Cornell   University. 

What  an  Insect  Is. — Many  people  call  any  small,  ac- 
tive animal  a  bug.  This  is  wrorig.  An  insect  is  an 
animal  that  has  six  legs,  three  distinct  divisions  of  the 
body,  head,  thorax  and  abdomen,  and  usually  one  or 
two  pairs  of  wings.     A  spider  has  eight  legs,  and  is, 


Bind  wing    '^orevmig 


Antenna 


§Twrxcle       '  .^"Z^.^el 


Meso  , 
ri  •  -  »  /  ^-  rv  f  ythorax 

Opiracles       //^^]         /  f 

Mddleleff  BvhtLeg 

JJindleg 

PARTS   OF  AN   INSECT   (HERRICK's  ZOOLOGY). 

therefore,  not  an  insect.  Worms  have  no  legs  at  all 
and  cannot  be  called  insects.  Familiar  examples  of  in- 
sects are  grasshoppers,  butterflies,  moths,  mosquitoes, 
etc.  Moreover,  not  all  insects  should  be  called  bugs. 
It  is  not  right  to  call  butterflies,  bees,  mosquitoes  and 
grasshoppers,  bugs.  There  is  a  large  group  of  insects 
that  have  sucking  mouth  parts  which  have  unpleasant 
odors  that  we  may  rightly  call  bugs.     The  stink-bugs, 

261 


262 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


squash-bugs  and  harlequin  cabbage-bugs  are  good  ex- 
amples. 

How  Insects  Move. — The  grasshopper  has  three 
ways  of  moving.  It  has  four  strong  wings  attached 
to  the  thorax  with  which  it  can  fly.  On  the  other  hand 
a  house-fly  has  only  two  wings.  But  whether  an  insect 
has  two  or  four  wings  they  are  always  attached  to  the 
thorax.  The  grasshopper  also  has  six  long  legs  with 
which  it  can  walk,  only  slowly,  however.  House-flies 
can  walk  quite  fast.  Many  beetles,  cockroaches,  and 
some  other  insects  can  run  very  fast  with  their  six  legs. 
Finally  the  grasshopper,  with  its  very  large,  long  and 
strong  hind  legs  can  leap,  or  hop  considerable  dis- 
tances. Fleas,  some  beetles,  and  certain  other  insects, 
can  also  hop.  The  majority  of  insects,  however,  have 
only  two  methods  of  movement,  flying  and  walking. 

It  must  be  noted  that  not  all  insects  have  wings. 
Many  ants,  a  few  moths,  bedbugs,  fleas,  some  beetles, 
and  certain  other  insects  have  no  wings  and  can  only 
mov^e  by  means  of  their  legs. 

How  Insects  See. — Insects  have  two,  large,  com- 
pound eyes,  one  on  each  side  of  the  head,  like  the  grass- 


a,  a.  feelers,  or 
antennae;  c,  c, 
compound  eyes; 
s,  single  eyes 
(Herrick's  Zool- 
ogy). 


PART  OF  grasshopper's  COM- 
POUND EYE  (herrick's  ZO- 
OLOGY). 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


263 


hopper.  If  we  could  examine  these  eyes  with  a  strong 
magnifying  glass  we  would  find  them  made  up  of 
many,  perhaps  200  or  300,  six-sided  divisions  much 
like  a  honey-comb.  These  compound  eyes  in  a  dragon- 
fly are  so  large  that  they  nearly  cover  the  front  of  the 
head.  In  addition  to  the  compound  eyes,  many  insects 
have  one  or  perhaps  three  or  four  single  eyes.  The 
grasshopper  has  three. 

H01V  Insects  Feel. — An  insect  can  feel  the  touch  of 
a  pencil  point,  for  example,  anywhere  on  the  body,  for 
its  body  is  well  supplied  with  nerves.     But  on  the  head 


1  2  34 

DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF    ANTENNA. 
I,  bead-like;  2,  bristle-like;  3,  club-shaped;  4,  feather-like. 

of  a  grasshopper  are  two  long,  slender  feelers,  or  an- 
tennae. These  are  the  special  organs  of  feeling. 
They  are  made  up  of  short  ring-like  divisions  called 
segments.  Every  insect  has  two  of  these  antennae. 
The  antennae  of  some  insects  are  short  and  club-shaped, 


264  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Others  are  long  and  threadlike,  others  are  like  a 
feather,  others  are  like  a  string  of  beads,  while  others 
are  of  various  shapes. 

How  Insects  Breathe. — Strange  to  say  an  insect  has 
no  nose,  and  does  not  breathe  through  its  mouth  at 

Ventral  transverse  trachea 

Dorsal  longitudinal 

trachea 


Lateral  longitudinal  trachea 

BREATHING   TUBES   OF   GRASSHOPPER    (hERRICK's   ZOOLOGY). 

all.  The  air  enters  an  insect's  body  through  holes 
along  the  sides  of  the  abdomen  and  thorax,  and  passes 
into  a  system  of  tiny  tubes  that  run  all  through  the 
body,  similar  to  the  blood  vessels  of  a  higher  animal. 
These  tubes  divide  and  subdivide  into  smaller  and 
smaller  branches  that  reach  every  part  of  the  body, 
even  entering  the  legs  and  wings  to  some  extent. 

How  Insects  Grow. — The  mother  grasshopper,  in 
the  fall,  makes  a  hole,  with  the  end  of  her  abdomen, 
in  the  ground,  and  in  this  lays  her  eggs,  several  dozen, 
in  a  sort  of  capsule  or  pod,  where  they  remain  until  the 
following  spring,  when  they  hatch  and  the  young  grass- 
hoppers appear.  The  young  as  soon  as  they  come 
from  the  egg  may  be  recognized  as  grasshoppers. 
They  are  called  nymphs.  They  eat  greedily  and  grow 
very  fast,  becoming  full-grown  in  about  two  months. 
During  this  time  they  molt  or  shed  their  skins  several 
times.  The  skin  of  a  young  grasshopper  gets  hard 
and  soon  becomes  too  small,  because  it  will  not  stretch, 
and  has  to  be  shed  for  a  new  and  larger  skin.  Every 
shedding  of  the  skin  represents  a  step  in  the  growth 
and  size  of  the  young  grasshopper.  After  the  first 
molt  or  two  the  wings  appear  as  small  backward-pro- 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


265 


STALK   OF   COTTON. 

Showing  the  egg  (e),  larva  (a),  pupa  (b),  and  adult  of  the  cotton-leaf  worm  moth 
(Herrick's  Zoology). 

jecting  pads.  With  each  successive  molt  the  wing-pads 
become  larger  and  larger  until  after  the  last  molt  they 
appear  fully  developed.  This  is  the  way  in  which  a 
grasshopper  and  many  other  insects  like  cockroaches, 
dragon-flies,  bedbugs,  etc.,  grow.  A  moth,  butterfly, 
mosquito,  house-fly,  beetle,  honey-bee,  ant,  and  many 
other  insects  grow  very  differently  from  this. 


266  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  moth  of  the  cotton-leaf  worm,  for  example,  lays 
her  tiny,  light  green  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  cotton 
plant,  where  they  remain  for  four  or  five  days.  At 
the  end  of  this  time  each  egg  hatches  into  a  tiny  cater- 
pillar, or  larva,  as  it  is  more  properly  called.  The 
larva  lives,  at  first,  on  the  under  sides  of  the  leaves 
and  eats  only  the  under  side  of  the  leaf.  It  grows  rap- 
idly, however,  and,  like  the  young  grasshopper,  sheds 
its  skin  several  times,  getting  larger  and  larger  with 
every  new  skin.  Finally,  after  fifteen  to  twenty  days, 
the  larvae  become  full  grown,  and  then  each  one  rolls 
the  edge  of  a  leaf,  and  inside  of  this  spins  a  thin  cov- 
ering of  silken  threads.  The  covering  of  silk  and  leaf 
is  called  a  cocoon.  The  larva,  inside  of  the  cocoon, 
soon  changes  to  an  object  known  as  a  pupa.  The  pupa 
lies  quiet  within  its  cocoon,  eats  nothing,  and,  after 
some  days,  its  skin  splits  open  along  the  back  of  the 
thorax,  and  the  full-grown  moth  crawls  out,  dries  her 
wings,  and  flies  away.  This  moth  does  not  grow  any 
more.  Neither  do  little  flies,  beetles,  bees,  or  butter- 
flies grow  into  large  flies,  beetles,  bees,  or  butterflies. 
After  an  insect  once  gets  fully  developed  wings  it  does 
not  grow  any  more. 

Exercise. — Catch  a  grasshopper,  house-fly,  and  squash-bug,  and 
count  their  legs.  Find  a  common  house  spider  and  see  if  it  has  six 
or  more  legs.  Observe  the  body  of  a  grasshopper  carefully,  and  see 
how  many  parts  to  the  body.    What  are  these  parts  called? 

Find  out  how  many  wings  a  grasshopper  and  a  fly  have.  Catch 
some  ants  and  see  how  many  wings  they  have.  Examine  the  eyes 
and  antennae  of  a  grasshopper  with  a  hand  lens.  Catch  a  dragon-fly 
and  look  at  its  large  eyes.  Notice  the  black  jaws  of  the  grasshopper. 
Put  it  in  a  glass  jar  or  a  lantern  globe  with  thin  muslin  tied  over  the 
top  and  watch  its  movements.  Perhaps  the  grasshopper  could  be 
induced  to  eat  some  fresh  grass  blades. 

Bring  in  some  harlequin  cabbage-bugs  and  put  them  on  a  small 
mustard  plant  in  a  pot.  Put  a  lantern  globe,  with  thin  muslin  tied 
over  the  top,  over  the  plant  and  watch  the  bugs  lay  their  eggs  and 
when  the  eggs  hatch  watch  the  young  bugs  grow  from  day  to  day. 
Try  to  watch  the  life  history  of  some  potato  beetles  in  the  same  way, 
using  potato  plants  instead  of  mustard. 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


267 


Section  XLI. — Insect  Friends  of  the  Farmer. 

Fortunately,  not  all  insects  are  pests  of  the  farm. 
Many  of  these  small  animals  are  among  our  best 
friends.  The  honey-bee  is  of  great  and  direct  use  to 
us,  because  it  furnishes  us  with  honey,  a  delicious  and 
important  article  of  food.  The  bodies  of  certain  scale 
insects  are  dried  and  then  pulverized  to  form  the  color- 
ing matter,  cochineal.  Certain  other  scale  insects  se- 
crete a  kind  of  wax  from  which  sheUac  is  made,  and 
which  is  used  so  much  in  finishing  furniture.  We 
should  not  forget,  either,  that  bees  are  especially  useful 
in  cross-fertilizing  many  of  our  fruits  and  certain  of 
our  forage  plants,  notably  red  clover.  Perhaps  the 
most  notable  example  of  the  value  of  insects  in  the 
cross-fertilization  of  fruits  is  shown  in  connection  with 
the  fig  in  California.  A  tiny  fly  brought  over  from 
Europe  now  cross-fertilizes  the  wild  and  cultivated  figs 
in  California.  As  a  result,  the  cultivated  figs  have  be- 
come so  much  better  in  quality  that  they  are  pronounced 
by  experts  as  good  as  the  fig  we  get  from  Europe,  if 
not  better. 

Insect  Cannibals. — There  is  a  group  of  small  hand- 
some, roundish  beetles  with  red  bodies  specked  with 


TWO-SPOTTED   LADY-BIRD. 

a,  larva;  d,  pupa;  e,  adult.     (From  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department 
of  Agriculture.) 


268 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


black  or  black  bodies  specked  with  red,  known  as  lady- 
birds, lady-beetles,   or  lady-bugs,   that  belie  in  every 

particular  their 
appearance  and 
name,  for  they  are 
truly  nothing  but 
cannibals.  Yet, 
since  they  eat  only 
insects,  and  espe- 
cially those  that 
do  us  the  most 
THE  MANTIS,  OR  devil's  HORSE,  harm,  wc  should 
bS's'-zoSSovT  """^^  '■'"■'"  If^rn    to    know 

them  and  protect 
them.  Both  the  lady-birds  and  their  young, 
the  larvae,  eat  plant  lice  and  scale  Insects,  and 
are  of  the  greatest  aid  to  us  In  keeping  these 
pests  in  check. 
The  mantis,  or  devil's  horse,  also  lives  upon  other 
insects,  and  is  one  of  our  best  friends.     The  gray  egg 


APHIS-LION. 

a,  eggs;  b,  larva;  d,  larva  eating  a  plant  louse;  /,  adult  enlarged;  h,  adult  natural 

size.     (From  Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.) 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


269 


masses  of  the  mantis  which  are  often  seen  on  bushes, 
fences,  etc.,  should  not  be  destroyed,  nor  the  mantis  it- 
self. Those  delicate  insects  known  as  lace-winged  flies 
also  aid  greatly,  for  the  larvae  of  these  insects  live  upon 
plant  lice  whenever  these  pests  can  be  found. 

There  are  many  other  cannibal  insects  that  devour 
hordes  of  pests  that  would  cause  great  damage  if  left 
alive. 

Insect  Parasites. — There  is  another  class  of  insects 


^i 

^^^ 

'm^^^^^^>- 

^P^vH 

p^^^O'^^^^**^ 

A   TOMATO  CATERPILLAR,  COVERED  WITH  THE  COCOONS  OF  A  PARASITE 

THAT  HAS  KILLED  IT. 

{Photograph  by  M.  V.  Slingerland.) 

that  can  be  considered  the  greatest  friends  of  all. 
These  are  the  ones  that  actually  lay  their  eggs,  either  in 
or  upon  the  bodies  of  other  insects,  where  they  hatch 
and  the  young  larvae  feed  upon  the  bodies  of  their  hosts 
finally  causing  the  death  of  the  latter.  These  are 
known  as  parasites. 

Caterpillars  are  sometimes  found  upon  grape  or  to- 
mato vines  with  their  backs  covered  all  over  with  tiny 


27© 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


PLANT  LICE,  SHOWING  HOLES  CLT  IN  THEIR 
BACKS  BY  PARASITES  THAT  HAVE  KILLED 
THEM. 

(Photograph  by  M.  V.  SUngerland.) 


white  objects  which  many  people  think  are  the  eggs  of 
the  caterpillars  themselves.  Really,  these  are  the  co- 
coons of  a  parasitic  insect,  the  larvae  of  which  have 

actually  lived  within 
the  body  of  the  cat- 
erpillar and  weak- 
ened it  so  that  it 
finally  dies.  It  is 
easy  to  see  how 
such  parasites  help 
the  grape  and  to- 
mato grower. 

Again,  where 
green  plant  lice  be- 
come abundant  on 
cabbage  or  on  grain 
they  may  be  found 
sooner  or  later,  a 
large  part  of  them 
dead  with  their  bodies  greatly  swollen  and  with  a  cir- 
cular hole  cut  in  their  backs.  These  lice  have  been 
killed  by  a  tiny  wasp-like  insect  that  laid  its  eggs  within 
the  body  of  the  plant  louse.  When  the  egg  hatched, 
the  small  larva  lived  within  the  body  of  its  host,  and 
finally  when  the  parasite  became  full  grown  it  cut  a 
hole  in  the  back  of  the  louse,  and  came  out  ready  to 
attack  other  lice.  The  so-called  green-bug  that  injures 
the  wheat  in  Texas  in  some  years  is  subject  to  tremen- 
dous attacks  by  just  such  a  parasite.  In  fact,  during 
seasons  when  the  green-bug  is  not  numerous  enough  to 
cause  trouble  it  is  certain  that  these  little  bugs  have 
been  at  work  killing  it. 

These  are  only  a  few  instances  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  farmer  is  helped  by  his  friends,  the  insect 
parasites.  If  it  were  not  for  these  various  kinds  of 
parasites  working  all  the  time,  and  in  places  that  we 
know  nothing  about,  our  farm  and  garden  crops  and 
fruits  would  be  destroyed  much  more  than  they  are. 
Exercise. — Look  on   peach   and   plum   trees   and   various   weeds, 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS.  271 

wherever  plant  lice  are  present,  and  see  if  some  lady-birds  cannot 
be  found.  The  little  red,  two-spotted  lady-bird  has  a  red  body  with 
a  black  spot  on  each  side  of  the  back.  She  is  not  as  large  as  the  head 
of  a  lead  pencil.  Other  lady-birds  with  red  bodies  and  black  spots 
will  also  be  found.  The  young  larvae  of  these  lady-birds,  which  have 
long,  spindle-shaped  bodies,  will  also  be  found  near,  feeding  upon 
the  plant  lice.  Watch  them  and  see  how  they  kill  the  plant  lice. 

Search  cabbage  leaves  or  leaves  of  oat  plants  or  other  plants  for 
green  lice  and  see  if  any  can  be  found  with  round  holes  in  their 
backs.  Such  lice  can  nearly  always  be  found  on  cabbage  leaves. 
Not  all  of  them  will  have  the  holes  in  their  backs,  but  many  of 
them  will  be  found  with  their  bodies  round  and  apparently  greatly 
swollen.  These  will  probably  have  the  little  parasites  still  inside 
of  their  bodies.  If  such  lice  are  brought  into  the  room  on  a  piece 
of  leaf  and  placed  under  a  lamp  chimney  with  a  piece  of  muslin 
over  the  top,  the  tiny,  dark-colored,  flylike  parasites  will  soon  cut 
holes  through  the  backs  of  the  lice  and  come  out  in  the  chimney. 
This  would  be  very  interesting  to  watch. 


Section  XLII. — Insect  Enemies  of  the  Farmer. 

"  A  tremendous  shower  of  grasshoppers  came  from 
the  South  completely  filling  the  air  as  high  as  one  could 
see,  and  looking  like  a  driving  snow-storm."  "  They 
almost  darken  the  sun  In  their  flight,  and  eat  everything 
green  in  their  path."  "  Imagine  every  green  thing  on 
the  face  of  the  earth  eaten  entirely  up,  the  meadows  and 
bluegrass  pastures  as  bare  of  vegetation  as  the  center 
of  a  state  road  that  is  traveled  a  great  deal,  and  you 
can  probably  form  some  idea  of  our  conditions  at  this 
time."  These  are  extracts  from  letters  that  the  farm- 
ers of  western  Missouri  wrote  in  1874  about  the 
hordes  of  grasshoppers  that  overran  some  of  the  west- 
ern states  in  that  year.  It  is  said  that  these  locusts 
caused  a  loss  to  Kansas,  Missouri,  Nebraska  and  Iowa 
in  1874  of  $40,000,000.  In  some  portions  of  these 
states  the  people  faced  a  famine. 

The  cotton  boll  weevil  destroys  millions  of  dollars' 
worth  of  cotton  every  year.  The  chinch-bug  on  wheat 
and  corn,  the  boll  worm  on  cotton  and  corn,  and  the 
weevils  in  stored  corn,  wheat  and  other  grains  cause  a 
loss  to  the  farmers  of  this  country  of  many  millions  of 
dollars   annually.     It  is  estimated  that   insects   cause 


272 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


more  loss  to  the  farmers  of  the  United  States  every 
year  than  it  costs  to  maintain  all  the  public  and  private 
schools,  colleges  and  universities  of  this  whole  country. 
The  Two  Great  Groups  of  Insect  Pests. — There  are 
many  kinds  of  Insects  that  pester  the  farmer  and  fruit 
grower.  All  of  them  taken  together,  may  be  divided 
Into  two  great  groups  dependent  upon  the  kind  of 
mouth  parts  they  have,  and  the  manner  In  which  they 
attack  plants.  The  insects  of  one  group  have  jaws, 
and  bite  off  bits  of  plants  and  swallow  them.  These 
are  known  as  the  biting  insects.  The  members  of  the 
other  group  have  a  beak  or  sucking  tube  which  they 
Insert  Into  the  tissues  of  plants  and  suck  out  the  juices. 
These  are  called  the  sucking  Insects. 

Insects  that  Bite. — The  grasshopper  Is  a   familiar 
example  of  the  biting  insects.      It    has    biting    mouth 

parts  composed  of  two 
pairs  of  jaws,  one  of 
which  is  hard  and  black 
and  easily  seen  with  the 
unaided  eye.  With  these 
jaws  the  grasshopper 
bites  off  pieces  of  leaves, 
stems,  etc.,  and  swallows 
them  much  as  a  cow  or 
horse  does.  Many  insects 
have  biting  mouth  parts  and  eat  parts  of  plants;  for 
example,  the  caterpillar,  or  "  worms  "  on  cotton,  to- 
matoes, cabbage,  etc.,  June-bugs,  fig-eaters,  potato- 
bugs,  and  many  others.  All  such  Insects  are  known  as 
biting  Insects. 

How  to  Fight  the  Biting  Insects. — It  Is  plain  that  an 
Insect  that  bites  pieces  of  leaves  and  swallows  them 
stands  a  fair  chance  of  being  killed  If  some  poisonous 
substance  is  placed  upon  the  leaves  before  they  are 
eaten.  After  one  determines  that  the  pest  causing  the 
trouble  Is  a  biting  Insect,  It  Is  necessary  to  decide  what 
poison  Is  best  to  use  and  how  and  when  to  apply  It. 
Pure  Paris  green  at  the  rate  of  one  pound  to  about 


THE   JAWS   OF   A   GRASSHOPPER. 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


273 


two  hundred  gallons  of  water  sprayed  on  plants  in  the 
form  of  a  fine  mist  is  a  standard  remedy  for  biting  in- 
sects. Two  to  five  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water  applied  in  the  same  way  is  an  even 
better  poison. 

Insects  that  Suck  the  Plant. — The  squash-bug  arid 
the  harelquin  cabbage-bug  are  examples  of  the  sucking 
insects.  If  a  large  squash- 
bug  is  examined,  there  is 
found  projecting  from  the 
under  side  of  its  head,  a 
long,  slender  beak  or  bill. 
The  same  kind  of  a  beak 
may  be  found  on  the  head 
of  the  cabbage-bug,  or  a 
stink-bug.  This  little  beak 
forms  a  tube  which  Is 
forced  into  the  leaf  or 
stem  and  serves  as  a  pipe 
through  which  to  draw  the 
sap  into  the  mouth. 

How  to  Fight  the  Sucking  Insects. — Since  these  in- 
sects draw  their  food  from  the  inside  of  the  plant  it 
it  is  evident  that  no  amount  of  poison  placed  on  the 
leaves  would  kill  them.  The  insects  would  get  none  of 
the  poison.  Such  insects  must  be  killed  by  putting 
something  like  oil,  tobacco  water,  soap,  or  sulphur  on 
their  bodies.     This  is  called  the  contact  method. 

A  favorite  way  of  killing  these  insects  is  to  dissolve 
I  pound  of  laundry  soap  in  2  gallons  of  hot  water,  and 
add  4  gallons  of  kerosene  oil.  The  mixture  is  then 
churned  or  agitated  until  it  forms  a  creamy  white  emul- 
sion which  is  then  diluted  with  about  forty  gallons  of 
water.  This  is  known  as  kerosene  emulsion,  and  is 
sprayed  upon  the  insects  to  be  killed  wherever  they 
may  be  found  upon  the  plants.  Another  method  is  to 
spray  the  insects  with  tobacco  water  made  by  boiling 
tobacco  stems  in  water  and  diluting  the  infusion  to  2 
gallons  of  water  for  every  pound  of  stems  used. 


A   SUCKING   BUG,    SHOWING   BEAK. 
{Photograph  by  Glenn  W.  Herrick.) 


274  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Importance  of  Knowing  the  Kind  of  Insect  Causing 
the  Trouble. — It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  know  what 
kind  of  insect  is  causing  the  trouble,  whether  it  is  a 
biting  or  a  sucking  one.  So  this  is  the  first  point  to 
determine.  If  the  pest  is  a  biting  one,  then  some  kind 
of  poison  sprayed  upon  the  plant  will  usually  be  the 
best  remedy.  If  the  pest  is  a  sucking  one,  then  some- 
thing must  be  used  that  will  kill  by  contact. 

Exercise. — Catch  some  grasshoppers  and  kill  them  by  putting  a 
little  chloroform  along  the  sides  of  the  body.  Examine  the  mouth 
of  a  grasshopper  and  find  the  two,  hard,  black  jaws.  Catch  some 
June-bugs  and  some  potato  beetles  and  see  if  these  insects  do  not 
have  similar  jaws. 

Find  a  squash-bug  or  harlequin  cabbage-bug,  and  look  on  the 
under  side  of  the  head  and  thorax  for  the  long,  slender  beak.  Ex- 
amine other  bugs  for  this  beak. 


Section  XLIII. — The  Boll  Weevil. 

By  Prof.  Wilmon  Newell, 
Texas  State  Entomologist. 

The  boll  weevil  is  the  greatest  enemy  of  the  cotton 
crop,  for  it  rarely  destroys  less  than  one-third  of  the 
cotton  crop  in  fields  where  it  occurs.  Frequently  the 
damage  amounts  to  one-half  or  three-fourths  of  the 
crop,  and  sometimes  all  is  destroyed. 

History  of  the  Insect. — Like  many  other  of  our  most 
injurious  insects  the  boll  weevil  has  come  to  us  from  an- 
other country,  for  it  is  a  native  of  Central  America  and 
Cuba,  where  its  ancestors  have  lived  for  centuries,  sub- 
sisting upon  the  wild  "  tree  cotton  "  which  grows  in 
the  tropics.  Cotton  culture  in  Mexico  and  Central 
America  was  not  important  until  after  the  perfection  of 
the  cotton  gin,  but  gradually  large  areas  were  devoted 
with  profit  to  the  production  of  the  staple.  When 
cultivated  cotton  was  first  grown  in  localities  where  the 
boll  weevils  existed,  these  insects  found  that  the  tender 
squares  were  far  preferable  to  those  of  the  wild  cotton, 
and  they  quickly  adapted  themselves  to  the  cultivated 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


275 


plants.     Gradually  the  pest  spread  from  its  native  ter- 
ritory to  various  parts  of  Mexico. 

Invasion  of  the  Cotton  Belt. — By  the  year  1892  the 
boll  weevil  had  reached  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande 
River,  and  commenced  its  invasion  of  Texas.  From 
Brownsville,  Texas,  it  spread  to  the  northward  in 
Texas,  and  in  1895  occurred  as  far  north  as  San  An- 


ADULT    BOLL    WEEVIL. 


tonio.  Since  then  it  has  been  spreading  in  every  di- 
rection until,  at  the  present  writing,  practically  all  of 
the  states  of'Texas,  Louisiana,  Oklahoma,  Mississippi 
and  Arkansas  are  infested.  There  is  every  probability 
that  it  will  spread  to  all  parts  of  the  Cotton  Belt. 

Description. — The  boll  weevil  is  a  beetle,  with  a 
hard  body-covering.  The  adult  is  from  one-eighth  to 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  is  about  one-third 
as  broad  as  it  is  long.  The  mouth-parts  are  extended 
into  a  beak  or  *'  snout,"  which  is  about  one-half  as  long 


WORK    OF    BOLL    WEEVIL. 

I,  Half-grown  square  destroyed  by  many  feeding  punctures  by  young  weevils; 
2,  square  ready  to  form  bloom,  very  largely  fed  upon;  3,  egg  deposited  at  base  of  petal 
inside  square;  4,  large  weevil  larva  being  destroyed  by  smaller  larva  of  Bracon  mellitor; 
S,  weevil  in  act  of  escaping  from  fallen  square;  6,  large  boll  severely  injured  by  many 
weevil  punctures. 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS.  277 

as  the  remainder  of  the  body.  The  color  of  the  adult 
weevil  is  somewhat  variable,  the  usual  color  being  a 
dark  grayish  brown. 

How  the  Cotton  is  Injured. — The  boll  weevil  in- 
jures the  cotton  in  two  ways:  by  feeding  in  the  squares 
and  small  bolls,  and  by  depositing  eggs  in  them.  The 
weevil  does  not  chew  up  the  leaves  or  buds,  for  it  is  not 
a  "  biting  insect."  When  the  weevil  wishes  food,  it 
thrusts  its  long  beak  into  a  fresh  square  until  it  reaches 
the  soft,  juicy  pollen  on  the  inside.  On  this  it  feeds, 
eating  all  it  can  reach.  The  square  which  is  injured 
in  this  way  cannot  become  a  blossom,  for  a  few  days 
after  the  weevil  has  fed  in  it,  it  wilts  and  falls  to  the 
ground. 

How  the  Egg  is  Laid. — The  boll  weevil  picks  out  a 
green  square,  and  with  the  beak  makes  a  deep  hole  in 
it.  Then  she  deposits  the  small  white  egg  in  the  open- 
ing, pushes  it  down  into  the  square  with  her  beak,  and 
then  plasters  over  the  opening  with  a  sticky  substance. 
The  cotton  .plant  tries  to  repair  the  damage  by  causing 
a  scar,  or  "  wart,"  to  grow  over  the  opening.  Instead 
of  healing  the  wound,  however,  this  wart  merely  serves 
to  protect  the  egg,  for  it  keeps  out  other  insects  that 
might  get  Into  the  square  and  destroy  the  egg. 

Number  of  Eggs  Laid. — Each  mother  boll  weevil 


BOLL   WEEVIL   LARVA   AND   PUP^. 


278  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

lays  from  75  to  150  eggs,  and  she  places  each  egg  in  a 
square  where  no  egg  has  been  laid  by  another  boll  wee- 
vil. Every  square  which  receives  an  egg  is  destroyed, 
so  that  one  mother  weevil,  during  the  course  of  her 
egg  laying,  will  destroy  from  75  to  150  squares. 

The  Larva. — In  3  or  4  days  after  the  egg  is  laid, 
it  hatches  into  a  small,  white,  footless  "  worm,"  called 
the  larva.     At  first  the  larva  is  not  much  larger  than 


^■1 

Pi 

W^M 

^^^^^^HH8 

Hy  \\  rll 

IS^IH^^^I 

^BCIIIp^ 

N^^^^ 

F^^iPm^H 

^^Hj^  - 

^\^^^H 

^^^^^^^^^b^^^3»> 

'"^i^^^^^^^l 

^^^^^^^^ '^^^^ 

""^■'  ':  iei  -  ■ 

^■-•^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 

^^^^^^ 

^^^^^^1 

SQUARE   OF   COTTON,    SHOWING   EXIT   OF   ADULT   BOLL   WEEVIL. 

the  egg  from  which  it  is  hatched,  but  it  begins  at  once 
to  feed  on  the  pollen  around  it  and  grows  very  rapidly. 
At  about  this  time  the  Infested  square  drops  to  the 
ground.  In  about  eight  or  ,ten  days  the  larva  eats  up 
all  the  pollen  in  the  square  and  becomes  so  large  that 
It  occupies  all  the  inside  of  its  little  home,  being  now 
about  one-fourth  of  an  Inch  long.  Its  period  of 
growth  Is  now  complete  and  It  changes  into  the 
pupa. 

The  Pupa. — The  pupal  stage  Is  the  third  period  In 
the  young  boll  weevil's  development.     In  this  stage  It 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS.  279 

begins  to  look  more  like  a  boll  weevil.  The  beak  ap- 
pears and  the  small  wings  can  be  seen  just  commencing 
to  grow.  The  pupa  does  not  feed,  for  it  lies  helpless 
within  the  square  for  about  a  week.  At  the  end  of  its 
pupal  existence  it  changes  into  a  perfect,  full-grown  boll 
weevil,  still  within  the  square.  Next  it  eats  a  hole  in  the 
side  of  its  "square  house,"  large  enough  to  get  through, 
and  comes  out  ready  to  destroy  more  squares  and  bolls. 

Effect  of  Temperature  on  Growth. — Heat  has  a  re- 
markable effect  upon  the  development  of  the  young  in- 
sects. When  the  weather  is  warm  the  eggs  hatches 
more  quickly,  and  the  larva  grows  much  faster  than 
in  cool  weather.  Thus  in  July  the  complete  develop- 
ment of  the  weevil,  from  egg  stage  to. adult,  may  take 
place  in  12  or  13  days.  Early  in  the  summer,  during 
May  and  June,  nearly  a  month  is  required  for  the  de- 
velopment of  a  generation.  In  October  and  Novem- 
ber, when  the  weather  is  cooler,  the  young  boll  weevil 
may  not  reach  maturity  until  35  or  40  days  after  the 
egg  is  laid. 

Migration. — Early  in  summer  the  boll  weevils  are 
not  usually  abundant,  for  the  rigors  of  winter  destroy 
many  of  them.  As  soon  as  the  squares  appear  on  the 
young  cotton  plants  eggs  are  laid,  and  in  a  few  weeks 
the  first  brood  of  weevils  reach  maturity.  Generation 
after  generation  of  weevils  follow,  until  by  the  first  or 
middle  of  August  there  are  thousands  of  them  in  the 
cotton  field,  and  the  plants  can  no  longer  produce 
squares  enough  to  supply  their  wants.  At  this  time 
the  weevils  become  possessed  with  a  desire  to  find  new 
fields  of  cotton  where  there  is  more  food  for  them. 
Accordingly  many  of  them  fly  up  into  the  air  and  go 
in  every  direction.  This  migration  takes  place  during 
August  and  September.  Many  of  the  weevils  succeed 
in  getting  to  localities  where  there  were  no  weevils  be- 
fore, and  in  this  way  the  infested  territory  is  increased 
40  to  50  miles  northward  and  eastward  each  summer. 
It  should  not  be  understoood  that  all  the  weevils  leave 
a   cotton  field  or  locality  when  the   migration   takes 


28o  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

place.  On  the  contrary,  It  is  only  the  surplus  that 
leaves  for  a  new  locality.  There  are  always  enough 
weevils  left  behind  to  continue  destroying  the  crop. 

Hibernation. — At  the  approach  of  cold  weather  the 
adult  weevils  seek  a  sheltered  place  in  which  to  pass  the 
winter.  Some  crawl  into  grass  and  leaves  right  in  the 
cotton  field,  others  fly  away  to  the  woods  and  crawl 
into  leaves  on  the  ground,  while  still  others  push  their 
way  into  bunches  of  Spanish  moss  hanging  on  the  trees. 
In  these  protected  situations  they  remain  in  a  dormant 
condition  during  the  winter,  going  without  food  and 
enjoying  their  winter  sleep  until  the  warm  sun  of 
springtime  again  makes  them  active. 

The  boll  weevil  eggs,  larvae  and  pupas  that  are  in  the 
field  when  cold  weather  comes  on  are  destroyed  by  the 
cold  and  never  get  to  be  grown  weevils. 

Many  Weevils  do  not  Survive  the  Winter. — Many 
of  the  weevils  that  hide  away  for  the  winter  do  not  live 
until  the  following  spring.  Some  of  them  die  of  old 
age,  some  are  eaten  by  birds,  some  are  destroyed  by 
cold,  wet  weather,  and  still  others  are  found  and 
eaten  by  "  pre-dac-eous  "  insects.  Enough  always  live 
through  the  winter,  however,  to  infest  liberally  the 
cotton  fields  the  next  spring.  In  warm  winters,  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Cotton  Belt,  from  lo  to  20  per 
cent,  survive  the  winter,  but  in  more  unfavorable  sea- 
sons not  more  than  2  or  3  per  cent,  live  until  spring. 

Economic  Changes. — The  invasion  of  the  South  by 
the  boll  weevil  has  caused  many  important  changes  to 
be  made  in  business  methods  in  the  country  districts. 
Formerly,  the  average  farmer  planted  nothing  but 
cotton,  and  in  order  to  provide  food  for  his  family  and 
tenants,  while  he  was  making  the  crop,  he  secured  ad- 
vances from  his  merchant.  In  other  words,  the 
farmer  went  in  debt  for  his  supply  of  potatoes,  bread, 
hay  and  corn,  and  sometimes  even  for  the  milk  and 
eggs  used  on  his  table.  In  the  fall  when  his  cotton 
was  marketed  it  took  most  of  the  proceeds  of  his  crop 
to  pay  his  debt  to  the  merchant. 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS.  281 

Diversification. — With  the  boll  weevil  present  the 
farmer  can  never  count  on  a  large  cotton  crop,  and  if 
he  follows  the  old  plan  of  buying  corn,  hay,  meat, 
butter,  eggs,  vegetables  and  other  things  that  he  could 
raise  himself,  he  finds  that  at  the  end  of  the  season  he 
owes  the  merchant  more  than  his  small  cotton  crop  will 
bring.  This  state  of  affairs  has  compelled  the  farmer 
to  *'  diversify,"  that  is,  to  raise  crops  of  many  kinds 
so  that  he  will  not  have  to  buy,  at  high  prices,  the  food 
and  supplies  which  he  can  produce  at  home.  When 
the  farmer  thus  makes  his  farm  "  self-supporting  "  he 
is  not  in  debt  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  his  cotton  crop 
is  clear  profit  on  the  year's  farming  operations,  no 
matter  whether  the  crop  is  large  or  small.  It  is  only 
by  thus  adapting  sound  business  principles  and  common 
sense  to  his  profession  of  farming  that  the  planter  can 
continue  to  grow  cotton  when  he  has  the  boll  weevil  to 
contend  with. 

Preventing  Damage  by  the  Boll  Weevil. — Ever  since 
the  boll  weevil  first  entered  Texas,  many  different  plans 
have  been  tried  for  his  destruction.  Poisons  have 
been  tested  extensively.  Both  Paris  green  and  Lon- 
don purple  will  kill  quite  a  number  of  the  weevils  in 
early  spring,  but  as  these  poisons  injure  the  cotton 
plants  as  well  as  the  weevils,  their  use  in  this  connec- 
tion is  unprofitable.  Recently  made  experiments  indi- 
cate that  a  new  poison,  known  as  "  powdered  arsenate 
of  lead,"  when  properly  used,  will  prove  of  value  in 
fighting  the  weevil. 

Burn  the  Cotton  Stalks. — There  is  but  one  practical 
way  of  destroying  the  boll  weevils.  That  is  by  picking 
the  cotton  as  fast  as  it  opens,  and  then  destroying  the 
cotton  plants  by  cutting  them  down  and  burning  them. 
Where  the  boll  weevil  occurs,  no  '*  top  crop,"  or  late 
crop,  is  ever  secured,  hence  all  the  cotton  actually  made 
opens  before  October  15th,  and  can  be  picked  by  that 
date.  The  plants  should  be  cut  down  before  October 
15th,  and  burned  before  November  ist.  As  will  be 
readily  seen,  this  destruction   of   the   cotton   plants — 


282  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

which  constitute  the  only  food  the  weevil  has — causes 
millions  of  them  to  starve  to  death  before  the  weather 
gets  cool  enough  for  them  to  hibernate.  It  destroys 
the  young  weevils  in  the  squares  and  grown  bolls,  and 
leaves  no  place  for  the  mother  weevils  to  lay  the  eggs 
which  would  produce  a  late  autumn  generation. 

The  Cultural  Method. — The  fall  destruction  of  the 
cotton  plants  must  be  supplemented  the  following 
spring  by  what  is  known  as  the  "  cultural  method  "  of 
fighting  the  weevil.  By  cultural  method  is  meant  the 
best  care  that  can  be  given  the  growing  cotton  crop. 
The  soil  must  be  well  plowed  and  thoroughly  pulver- 
ized before  the  seed  is  planted,  an  early-maturing  va- 
riety must  be  used  and  the  seed  must  be  planted  early. 
On  poor  soils,  fertilizer  containing  plenty  of  phos- 
phoric acid  must  be  liberally  used.  From  the  time  the 
cotton  comes  up  until  the  first  bolls  are  opening  it  must 
receive  frequent  shallow  cultivations.  The  more  it 
is  cultivated  the  faster  will  the  plants  grow,  and  the 
sooner  will  they  produce  bolls.  It  is  a  race  with  the 
boll  weevil  from  the  beginning,  for  each  week  sees  an 
increased  number  of  weevils  in  the  field,  and  when  there 
are  weevils  enough  to  destroy  all  squares  as  fast  as 
they  can  grow  no  more  bolls  can  be  "  made."  Many 
successful  farmers  in  the  weevil-infested  section  culti- 
vate their  crops  as  many  as  ten  or  twelve  times  during 
the  growing  season. 

Steady,  persistent  work,  guided  by  an  intelligent 
knowledge  of  the  boll  weevil's  habits,  will  win  the  battle 
against  this  foe. 

Exercise. — If  the  school  is  located  in  a  section  where  boll  weevils 
occur,  have  the  students  visit  a  cotton  field  and  bring  infested 
squares  and  bolls  to  the  school.  Notice  the  difference  between  feed- 
ing punctures  and  egg  punctures.  Open  infested  squares  and  find 
the  young  in  different  stages  of  development,  egg,  larva,  and  pupa. 
Place  infested  squares  in  a  glass  jar  containing  a  little  damp  sand 
and  see  how  long  it  requires  for  the  larvae  to  reach  maturity.  The 
mouth  of  the  jar  should  be  covered  with  thin  cloth  to  prevent  es- 
cape of  the  insects.  Examine  infested  bolls  and  see  how  the  injury 
differs  from  that  done  to  the  squares.  In  winter,  examine  Spanish 
moss  for  boll  weevils  in  hibernation. 


INSECTS    AND    BIRDS. 


283 


Section  XLIV. — The  Cattle  Tick. 

By  Prof.  Wilmon  Newell, 
Texas  State  Entomologist. 


The  cattle  tick  {''Mar- 
garopus  annulatus  ")  is 
one  of  the  greatest  pests 
to  live-stock.  Where  the 
ticks  are  prevalent  there 
will  be  hundreds,  or 
maybe  thousands,  of  ticks 
sticking  here  and  there 
among  the  hairs.  Each 
tick  has  a  long  beak  which 
it  inserts  into  the  animal's 
skin,  and  through  which  it 
is  constantly  sucking  up 
her  blood. 

Texas  Cattle  Fever. — 
Then,  too,  the  ticks  often 
give  to  cattle  the  deadly 
disease  known  as  *'  Texas 
cattle  fever,"  which  kills  thousands  of  cattle  in  the 
South  every  year.  So  much  loss  is  caused  by  these  ticks 
that  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is 
spending  nearly  a  half  million  dollars  a  year  in  trying 
to  destroy  them. 

Description. — The  female  ticks  are  quite  large  when 
full  grown,  measuring  as  much  as  three-eights  of  an 
inch  in  length.  The  color  is  dark  gray,  and  the  eight 
legs  are  so  small  that  they  are  not  noticed  without  look- 
ing closely  for  them.  These  are  the  ticks  that  are  so 
easily  found  on  the  cow. 

The  male  ticks  are  much  smaller  and  are  very  active. 
They,  too,  suck  blood  through  the  skin  of  the  animal, 
but  they  do  not  stay  in  one  place  long  at  a  time. 

Life  History. — The    female    tick    stays    upon    the 


FEMALE   CATTLE    TICK. 


284 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


CATTLE   SEED    TICK. 


animal  until  fully  engorged  with  blood.  Then  she 
lets  go  and  drops  to  the  ground,  where  she  slowly  and 
clumsily   crawls   under   a   bunch   of   grass    or   leaves. 

Here  she  commences  lay- 
ing eggs,  very  small, 
brown  and  shiny,  and  dur- 
ing the  next  eight  or  ten 
days  she  may  lay  as  many 
as  1,500  or  2,000.  Her 
mission  in  life  is  then  com- 
pleted and  she  dies. 

Seed  Ticks. — In  from 
18  to  25  days  the  eggs 
hatch  into  seed  ticks  which 
are  very  tiny.  They  have 
six  legs  and  these  they 
make  use  of  at  once. 
They  crawl  up  the  nearest  blade  of  grass,  clear  to  the 
top.  Here  they  stay,  holding  on  by  their  hind  legs 
and  waving  their  front  legs  frantically  in  the  air. 
When  an  animal  brushes  against  the  blade  of  grass 
the  little  ticks  let  go  their  hold  and  attach  themselves 
to  the  animal.  Then  they  crawl  over  its  body,  find  a 
place  that  suits  them  and  insert  their  beaks  to  get  their 
first  meal  of  warm  blood. 

Molting. — The  little  ticks  now  grow  so  fast  that 
their  skins  become  too  small,  so  the  skins  are  shed,  or 
molted,  from  time  to  time.  At  the  first  molt  the  tick 
comes  out  with  eight  legs,  insead  of  six. 

Remedies. — There  are  two  ways  to  free  the  cattle 
of  the  ticks.  One  way  is  to  rub  the  animal  thoroughly 
with  some  greasy  substance,  such  as  crude  petroleum, 
the  other  is  known  as  the  "  pasture  rotation  method." 
Pasture  Rotation  Method. — In  summer  time  the 
baby  ticks  cannot  live  more  than  three  months  after 
they  hatch  from  the  eggs,  and  unless  they  succeed  in 
getting  on  a  cow  or  similar  animal  before  the  three 
months  are  up  they  starve  to  death.  Therefore,  if  all 
cattle  are  kept  out  of  a  field  for  more  than  three 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS.  285 

months  in  summer,  all  ticks  in  the  field  will  die.  Be- 
fore cattle  are  again  placed  in  this  "  tick-free  "  field 
they  are  also  cleaned  of  ticks,  usually  by  greasing  them 
with  crude  oil.  When  both  the  cattle  and  the  pasture 
have  been  made  tick-free  no  more  ticks  will  get  on  the 
cattle  unless  a  tick-infested  animal  is  brought  to  the 
pasture.  There  are  many  modifications  of  the  pasture 
rotation  method.  Full  descriptions  of  them  can  be 
found  in  the  bulletins  published  by  the  State  Experi- 
ment Stations. 

Exercise. — Have  one  of  the  pupils  secure  several  engorged  ticks 
from  a  gentle  cow  and  bring  them  to  the  school.  Place  them  in 
an  open-mouthed  bottle  or  small  dish  until  eggs  are  laid.  Note 
the  small  size  of  the  eggs  and  their  abundance.  Place  some  of  the 
eggs  in  a  clean  glass  bottle  and  close  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  with 
cotton.  Keep  in  a  warm  room  until  the  eggs  hatch.  How  many  days 
are  required?  Through  the  sides  of  the  bottle  examine  the  baby 
ticks.  How  many  legs  have  they?  Do  not  open  the  bottle  of  seed 
ticks  in  the  schoolroom. 


Section  XLV. — The  Cotton  Worm  or  Cotton 
Caterpillar. 

By  Prof.  Wilmon  Newell, 
Texas  State  Entomologist. 

The  cotton  worn,  or  cotton  leaf-worm.  Is  well  known 
to  every  cotton  planter.  The  bluish-green  caterpillars, 
or  "  worms,"  appear  in  the  cotton  fields  in  middle  or 
late  summer,  and  feed  upon  the  leaves  and  squares. 
When  numerous  they  quickly  strip  the  plants  of  all 
foliage,  and  the  cotton  crop  is  severely  curtailed.  In 
the  southern  part  of  the  Cotton  Belt  five  or  six  genera- 
tions of  the  caterpillar  are  produced  each  summer;  in 
the  northern  part  only  two  or  three  broods  appear. 

Life  History. — The  adult  insect  is  an  olive-gray 
moth  measuring  about  one  and  one-quarter  inches 
across  the  wings  when  in  flight.  The  moth  is  active 
only  at  night,  and  during  her  lifetime  lays  from  300  to 
500  eggs.  These  eggs  hatch,  in  from  3  to  8  days,  into 
small  greenish  larvs  marked  with  small  black  dots. 


286 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


EGG   OF   COTTON- 
WORM    MOTH. 


The  larva  grows  rapidly,  shedding 
its  skin  five  times  before  reaching 
maturity.  Only  about  two  weeks 
are  required  for  the  growth  of  the 
larva.  It  then  selects  a  convenient 
place  on  the  limb  of  the  cotton  plant, 
sometimes  within  a  folded  leaf 
which  its  appetite  has  overlooked, 
or  on  an  adjacent  weed,  and  spins 
about  itself  a  thin  web.  In  this 
pupal,  or  chrysalis,  stage,  the  insect 
remains  quietly  for  from  one  to 
three  weeks.  Then  the  thin  cocoon 
is  burst  asunder  and  the  adult  moth 
issues,  to  take  up  her  task  of  laying  the  eggs,  which  are 
to  produce  the  following  generation  of  caterpillars. 

The  Moths. — The  winter 
is  passed  in  the  adult  stage 
only,  the  moths  hibernating 
in  trash,  leaves,  grass,  etc.,  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  the 
South.  Moths  of  each  gen- 
eration during  the  summer 
fly  further  and  further  north- 
ward, so  that  by  autumn  the 
caterpillars  are  sometimes 
found  as  far  north  as  Ar- 
kansas and  Virginia. 

Its  Importance.  —  Shortly 
after  the  Civil  War,  at  which 
time  the  crop  was  almost  to- 
tally destroyed  by  its  ravages, 
this  insect  was  considered  the 
most  dangerous  enemy  of  the 
cotton  crop.  In  later  years, 
however,  it  has  been  of  rela- 
tively less  importance,  for  its 

natural  enemies  have  in-  cotton  caterpillar. 

creased  to  such  an  extent  that  a,  side  view;  t,  top  view. 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


287 


they  prevent  the  caterpillars  from  reaching  Injurious 
numbers  in  the  average  season.  Indeed,  In  Texas  and 
Louisiana,  where  the  boll  weevil  occurs,  the  caterpillar 
is  welcomed.  If  It  does  not  appear  in  large  numbers 
until  in  September  or  October.  By  destroying  the 
squares  and  leaves  of  the  cotton  plant  in  the  fall,  the 
caterpillar  destroys  the  breeding  places  and  food  of 
the  boll  weevil,  with  the  result  that  there  are  less  of 


COTTON-WORM   MOTH, 
o.with  wings  expanded  inflight;  6,  wings  closed.    After  Riley,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

the  latter  insects  to  pass  through  the  winter  and  at- 
tack the  following  season's  crop. 

Methods  of  Control. — The  cotton  caterpillar  Is 
easily  killed  with  arsenical  poisons,  and  when  they  ap- 
pear as  early  as  July  or  August,  measures  must  be 
taken  against  them.  Paris  green  has  been  extensively 
used  for  this  purpose,  at  the  rate  of  about  one  pound 
per  acre,  the  "  green  "  being  applied  by  dusting  it  from 
cloth  sacks  attached  to  a  pole  which  Is  carried  through 
the  fields  on  horseback.  The  more  modern  treatment 
is  to  use  powdered  arsenate  of  lead,  applied  In  the 
same  way.  The  latter  substance  does  not  cut  short  the 
cotton  fruitage  as  does  Paris  green,  and  can  be  safely 
used  at  the  rate  of  from  three  to  five  pounds  per  acre. 
One  application  Is  usually  sufficient  to  hold  the  insect 
in  check. 

■  Exercise. — During  the  latter  part  of  summer  have  the  pupils  search 
for  the  caterpillars  in  adjoining  cotton  fields  and  bring  to  the  school 
living  larva:.  Feed  these  on  green  cotton  leaves  until  they  reach 
"maturity  and  transform.  Note  the  manner  in  which  the  pupa  is 
formed.  Keep  the  pupae  in  a  glass  jar  and  note  the  time  required 
for  transition  through  this  stage.  What  changes  take  place  in  the 
adult  moth  just  after  it  leaves  the  pupal  skin? 


288 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Section  XLVI. — Orchard  and  Garden  Insects. 

By  Prof.  A.  L.  Quaintance, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

A  large  number  of  insects  feed  directly  or  indirectly 
upon  the  wood,  foliage  or  fruit  of  orchard  and  vine- 
yard plants,  and  an  equally  large  number  depredate 
upon  various  garden  crops.  Comparatively  few  spe- 
cies, however,  are  of  first  importance,  but  these  are 
present  almost  every  year,  and  are  so  destructive  that 
control  measures  are  necessary  for  profitable  crop 
production. 

Orchard  Insects. 

San  Jose  Scale. — The  San  Jose  or  Chinese  scale  in- 
fests practically  all  orchard  trees,  as  apple,  pear,  plum, 
etc.,  and  also  many  shade  trees  and  ornamental  plants. 


THE    SAN   JOSE    SCALE,    AND   ITS   WORK. 

I,  Peach  tree,  with  top  killed  by  the  scale;  2,  peach  twig,  showing  male  and  female 
scale;  3,  peach  tree  badly  infested. 


THE    PEACH    BORER,    AND    ITS    WORK. 
I,  Exudation  of  gum  of  infected  tree;  2,  the  borer  and  its  cocoon. 


290 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


This  insect  is  very  prolific,  and  when  once  established 
increases  rapidly,  soon  incrusting  the  limbs  and 
branches  giving  them  a  gray  appearance  as  if  dusted 
with  ashes.  The  scale  insects  feed  by  sucking  out  the 
sap  from  the  inner  bark,  and  if  unchecked  quickly  de- 
stroy the  infested  plants.  This  pest  is  readily  con- 
trolled by  a  single  thorough  spraying  each  year  during 
the  dormant  season  with  lime-sulphur  wash,  made  by 
boiling  together  for  an  hour,  20  pounds  of  lime,  15 
pounds  of  sulphur,  in  about  15  gallons  of  water,  to 
be  finally  diluted  to  make  50  gallons  of  the  wash. 
Other  sprays  may  be  used  as  20  per  cent,  kerosene 
emulsion,  strong  whale  oil  soap  solution,  etc. 

Peach  Borer. — East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the 
peach  borer  usually  occurs  wherever  peaches  are 
grown.  The  larvse  feed  under  the  bark  at  the  crown 
of  the  tree  or  on  the  roots.  Young  trees  are  greatly 
injured  and  often  killed  by  girdling,  and  the  vitality  of 


PEACH    BORER. 

a.  Adult  female;  b,  adult  male;  c,  full  grown  larva;  d,  female  pupa; 
e,  male  pupa;  /,  pupa  skin  partially  extended  from  cocoon. 

the  older  ones  considerably  impaired.  Trees  should 
be  gone  over  in  the  spring  and  fall,  and  the  borers  re- 
moved with  a  knife,  or  killed  in  their  burrows  with  a 
stiff  wire. 

Plum  CurcuUo. — The  plum  curculio  punctures  in 
the  spring  peaches,  plums,  cherries  and  apples,  caus- 
ing them  to  fall  or  become  knotty  and  misshapen  as 
they  grow.    The  egg  is  deposited  by  the  parent  beetle 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


291 


under  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  The  resulting  grub  feeds 
in  the  flesh,  usually  at  the  pit  In  stone  fruits,  where  it 
completes  it  growth,  and  is  the  cause  of  worminess  in 
peaches,  plums  and  cherries.  Beginning  in  the  spring, 
shortly  after  the  fruit  is  set,  and  continuing  for  four 
or  five  weeks  the  beetles  should  be  jarred  from  the 


PLUM    CURCULIO. 

a.  Larva;  6,  adult;  c,  pupa. 


trees  every  day  or  so  on  sheets  held  or  placed  on  the 
ground  under  the  trees.  A  forcible  stroke  with  a 
padded  mallet  causes  most  of  them  to  fall.  The 
beetles  may  also  be  poisoned  by  spraying  the  trees 
with  arsenate  of  lead  at  the  rate  of  2  pounds  to  50 
gallons  of  water,  making  the  first  application  as  soon 
as  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  and  repeating  twice  at 
intervals  of  about  ten  days.  This  treatment,  how- 
ever, sometimes  causes  injury  to  the  foliage,  especially 
of  the  peach. 

Codling  Moth. — Wormy  apples,  the  work  of  the 
codling  moth,  are  familiar  to  all  lovers  of  this  fruit. 
Although  this  insect  is  successfully  controlled,  it  still 
imposes  upon  the  apple  growers  of  the  United  States 
a  tax  of  about  twelve  million  dollars  annually.  Two 
or  three  weeks  after  blooming  of  trees  the  moths  are 
depositing  eggs  in  numbers  here  and  there  on  the 
foliage  and  fruit.    Young  larvae,  upon  hatching,  mostly 


292  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

enter  the  apples  at  the  blossom  end.  There  are  from 
one  to  three  generations  each  year  according  to  lo- 
cality. The  insect  is  controlled  by  spraying  the  trees 
with  Paris  green,  arsenate  of  lead  or  other  arsenical 
just  after  the  petals  fall,  thus  placing  a  dose  of  poison 
in  each  calyx  cup  to  be  later  eaten  by  the  larva  as  it 
seeks  to  enter  the  fruit.  Additional  sprayings  should 
also  be  given  in  four  weeks  after  the  blossoms  fall, 
and  in  ten  weeks,  this  latter  for  the  second  brood  of 
larvae  where  it  is  troublesome.     The  poison  is  now  al- 


CODLING    MOTH   LARVA. 


most  always  applied  in  Bordeaux  mixture,  a  fungicide, 
thus  controlling  both  the  codling  moth  and  fungus 
diseases. 

The  Orange  White  Fly. 

By  Dr.  A.  W.  Morrill, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

The  Orange  White  Fly. — There  are  several  species 
of  white  flies  in  this  country,  but  the  orange  white  fly 
easily  ranks  as  the  most  injurious  member  of  the  group 
as  well  as  one  of  the  most  destructive  orange  enemies. 
This  insect  injures  the  leaves  of  the  orange  tree.  The 
adult  Insect,  which  appears  like  a  minute  white  gnat. 


INSECTS  AND   BIRDS.  293 

lays  its  eggs  to  the  number  of  about  one  hundred,  on 
the  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves.  The  larval  stages 
are  scale  like,  and  except  for  the  first  few  hours,  re- 
main fixed  in  one  position  on  the  leaf  until  it  becomes 
fully  developed  and  the  adult  emerges.  The  entire 
period  from  the  laying  of  the  egg  to  the  appearance 
of  the  adult  is  rarely  less  than  seven  weeks  and  usually 
much  longer.  The  insect  breeds  on  several  plants  be- 
sides those  of  the  orange  group.  In  order  to  control 
the  insect  satisfactorily,  chinaberry  and  umbrella  trees, 
cape  jessamines  and  privets  must  not  be  allowed  to 
grow  near  orange  groves.  Parasitic  fungi  attack  the 
young  scale-like  stages  of  the  fly  and  produce  bright 
red,  yellow  or  brown  growths.  These  friendly  fungi 
reduce  the  white  fly  damage  about  one-third.  For  en- 
tirely satisfactory  results  it  is  necessary  to  fumigate 
orange  trees  with  a  poisonous  gas,  called  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas,  after  covering  the  trees  with  canvas  tents,  or 
else  to  carefully  spray  the  trees  with  a  soap  solution. 

Garden  Insects. 

By  Prof.  A.  L.  Quaintance, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

Cutworms. — Cutworms  are  of  almost  universal  oc- 
currence in  gardens,  feeding  upon  all  classes  of  crops. 
They  attract  attention  mainly  in  the  spring,  as  at  this 
time  they  are  hungry  from  their  winter's  fast,  and  the 
scarcity  of  green  vegetation  forces  them  to  the  garden 
crops.  Cutworms  are  best  controlled  by  use  of  pois- 
oned baits,  which  should  be  in  place  some  days  before 
the  garden  plants  are  set  out,  or  as  soon  as  first  injury 
is  noticed.  An  excellent  bait  is  fresh  clover,  alfalfa 
or  other  succulent  vegetation  sprayed  with  or  dipped 
in  Paris  green  in  water,  or  a  poisoned  bran  mash  may 
be  used.  The  poisoned  bait  should  be  placed  in  nu- 
merous small  heaps  over  the  infested  ground  or  by  the 
plants.  Fresh  bait  should  be  added  from  time  to  time 
as  necessary  to  keep  it  fresh. 


294 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Imported  Cahhage  JVorm. — The  imported  cabbage 
worm  is  very  destructive  to  cabbage  and  other  crucifer- 
ous (mustard  family)  plants,  riddling  the  leaves  as 
shown  in  the  figure.  Young  plants  should  be  sprayed 
with  an  arsenical,  as  arsenate  of  lead,  just  before 
being  taken  from  the  seed  bed,  and  after  they  are 
set  out  additional  sprayings  should  be  given  until  the 


IMPORTED  CABBAGE  WORM. 

a.  Female  butterfly;  b,  above,  egg  as  seen  from  above;  below,  egg  as  seen  from  side; 

c,  larva  on  cabbage  leaf;  d,  suspended  chrysalis. 

heads  are  about  half  grown  or  ev^en  later.  The 
poison  washes  off  in  three  or  four  weeks.  All  plant 
remnants  should  be  destroyed  as  soon  as  the  crop  is 
harvested,  as  otherwise  the  insects  continue  to  breed 
on  the  food  thus  furnished. 

Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — The  Colorado  potato 
beetle  is  now  much  less  a  pest  than  in  former  years. 
It  is   readily   controlled   by  spraying   or   dusting   the 


SECTION   OF  POTATO   PLANT,   SHOWING  COLORADO   POTATO  BEETLE  AT 

WORK, 
a,  Beetle;  b,  b,  egg  masses;  c,  c,  half-grown  larvae;  d,  d,  mature  larvae. 


COLORADO   POTATO   BEETLE. 
a.  Beetle;  b,  larva;  c,  pupa. 


296 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


plants  with  an  arsenical,  as  Paris  green  or  arsenate 
of  lead.  A  close  lookout  should  be  kept  for  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  beetles  on  the  plants  in  the  spring, 
and  the  poison  applied  promptly,  which  will  largely 
prevent  further  trouble. 

Harlequin  Bug. — The  harlequin  bug  infests  all  cru- 
ciferous plants,  as  cabbage,   turnips,   etc.     The  bugs 


a,  Adult;  b,  egg  masses 


HARLEQUIN   BUG. 

c,  first  stage  of  nymph;  d,  second 
/,  fourth  stage;  g,  fifth  stage. 


stage;  e,  third  stage; 


hibernate  in  trash  around  gardens,  and  come  out  in 
early  spring,  feeding  on  wild  mustard.  They  obtain 
their  food  by  means  of  a  beak  and  slender  bristles 
inserted  into  the  plant,  thus  sucking  up  the  juices, 
causing  the  plant  to  wilt.  Arsenicals  are  not  effective 
against  this  insect,  and  a  strong  spray  must  be  used 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS.  297 

which  will  corrode  the  body  or  stop  the  breathing 
pores,  as  kerosene  emulsion,  whale-oil  soap  solution,  or 
strong  tobacco  decoction.  As  the  bugs  often  congre- 
gate on  wild  mustard  in  early  spring  it  is  practicable 
to  pick  them  off  and  destroy  them  by  burning  or  sub- 
merging in  a  can  of  kerosene. 

Exercise. — Bring  specimens  of  wormy  apples,  plums  and  peaches 
to  the  classroom  and  see  if  the  injuries  are  not  due  to  one  of  the 
insects  mentioned  in  this  text. 

Take  the  class  out  to  an  orchard  and  find  San  Jose  scale  and 
other  insects  or  insect  injuries. 

If  any  farmer  owns  a  spraying  outfit,  arrange  to  take  the  class  to 
his  place,  preferably  when  he  is  operating  it. 


Section  XLVII. — House-flies  and  Mosquitoes. 

By  Dr.  A.  W.  Morrill, 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 

House  Fly. — Scientists  are  now  using  "  typhoid  fly  " 
as  the  common  name  of  the  house  fly  in  order  that 
everyone  may  bear  in  mind  the  dangerous  nature  of 
this  insect  as  a  carrier  of  typhoid  fever  germs.  The 
adult  fly  lays  her  eggs  to  the  number  of  about  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  in  manure  and  filth  of  various  kinds. 
Horse  manure  is  the  principal  breeding  place.  The 
young  stages  are  completed  in  from  ten  to  fourteen 
days  depending  on  the  temperature.  Scientists  have 
proven  that  flies  carry  on  their  feet  and  in  their  bodies 
germs  of  typhoid  fever,  cholera,  dysentery  and  other 
diseases.  While  these  disease  germs  are  carried  by 
other  means,  flies  are  believed  to  be  among  the  most 
important  agents  in  transmitting  these  diseases.  The 
typhoid  fly  can  be  controlled  to  a  large  extent  in  both 
the  city  and  the  country  by  screening  the  storage  places 
for  horse  manure,  and  by  the  proper  disposal  of  waste 
material  and  human  excrement  when  necessary. 


298 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Mosquitoes. — These  insects  rank  among  our  most 
injurious  ones,  owing  to  their  being  the  only  means  for 
the  transmission  of  malaria  and  yellow  fever.  In  the 
case  of  the  former  disease  it  has  been  estimated  that 


BACTERIA  LEFT   BY   FLY   PASSING   OVER   GELATINE    PLATE. 
(Permission  of  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.) 

the  losses  which  the  malarial  mosquitoes  cause,  in  the 
United  States,  amounts  to  not  less  than  one  hundred 
million  dollars  a  year.  The  mosquitoes  which  carry 
malaria  usually  can  be  distinguished  from  the  non- 
disease  carrying  forms  by  their  spotted  wings,  and  by 
their  standing  with  their  bodies  at  an  angle  to  the  sur- 
face upon  which  they  may  rest,  rather  than  nearly  par- 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


299 


allel  with  it.  Malaria  has  been  proven  in  many 
sections  of  the  world  to  be  entirely  avoidable  by  pre- 
venting the  breed- 
ing of  malarial 
mosquitoes,  and  by 
the  careful  screen- 
ing of  windows 
and  doors  in  dwell- 
ing houses. 

There  is  only 
one  kind  of  mos- 
quito which  can 
carry  yellow  fever. 
This  is  a  small 
mosquito  with 
banded  legs  and 
silvery  stripes  on 
the  back  between 
the  wings.  It 
breeds  almost  en- 
tirely in  cisterns, 
when  these  are  not 
properly  screened; 
and  in  horse 
troughs,  rain  bar- 
rels, tin  cans  and 
other  receptacles 
in  which  water  is 
allowed  to  collect. 
The  young  stages 
of  all  kinds  of  mosquitoes  live  in  water  and  are  famil- 
iarly known  as  "  wigglers."  They  develop  very  rap- 
idly in  warm  weather,  and  may  reach  the  adult  or 
winged  stage  in  a  week  or  ten  days.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent the  breeding  of  mosquitoes  all  receptacles  that 
hold  water,  such  as  tin  cans,  should  be  removed  or 
buried.  Horse  troughs  should  be  emptied  every  few 
days.  Wells  and  cisterns  should  be  thoroughly 
screened    with    some    fine    wire    screening    or    cheese 


DISEASE-CARRYING  MOSQUITO  ABOVE. 
COMMON   MOSQUITO   BELOW. 


300 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


A   MALARIAL   MOSQUITO. 


cloth.  Ditches  should  be  kept  free  from  water  as 
much  as  possible.  To  prevent  being  bitten  by  mos- 
quitoes, dwellings  should  be  well  screened. 

Exercise. — What  enables  a  house-fly  to  stand  on  the  ceiling? 
How  do  you  explain  the  ease  which  house-flies  spread  infection  with 
their  feet? 

Require  the  pupils  to  bring  some  mosquito  wigglers  to  school.  Fill 
two  tumblers  three-quarters  full  of  water  and  place  half  the  wigglers 
in  one  tumbler  and  half  in  the  other.  Place  a  lantern  globe  (the  top 
of  which  has  muslin  tied  on  it)  over  one  tumbler  and  watch  the 
development  of  the  mosquitoes.  Add  enough  coal  oil  to  the  other 
tumbler  to  cover  the  surface  of  water  and  note  the  effect. 


INSECTS   AND    BIRDS. 


301 


Section  XLVIII. — Bee  Keeping. 

By  Prof.  Wilmon  Newell, 
Texas  State  Entomologist. 

The  honey-bee  is  one  of  the  few  insects  which  have 
been  domesticated  by  man  and  made  to  serve  him,  and 
they  have  been  kept  for  their  honey  since  the  earliest 
times.  The  keeping  of  bees  is  a  pleasant  and  profitable 
occupation. 

Bees  and  Fruits. — Not  only  are  bees  useful  for  the 
honey  they  produce,  but  they  render  a  valuable  service 
to  the  fruit  grower  by  carrying  the  pollen  from  one 
blossom  to  another,  so  that  the  flowers  are  "  polli- 
nated." Where  bees  are  scarce  and  the  flowers  not 
well  pollinated  the  fruit  crop  is  poor.  Bees  do  not 
injure  ripening  fruits,  for  the  bee's  mouth-parts  are  not 
strong  enough  to  pierce  the  skin  of  sound  fruit. 

The  Colony. — Honey-bees  are  "  social  insects,"  that 
is,  they  live  in  large  colonies,  and  all  the  bees  in  the 
colony  work  for  the  common  good.  In  each  colony 
there  is  a  queen,  a  few  drones,  or  males,  and  from 
3,000  to  10,000  workers. 

The  queen  is  the  mother  of  the  colony,  for  she  lays 
the  eggs  that  are  to  produce  the  young  bees. 


WORKER. 


QUEEN   BEE 


DRONE. 


302  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

The  workers  do  all  the  work  for  the  community. 
Certain  ones  go  forth  each  day  In  search  of  honey  and 
pollen,  others  act  as  nurses  and  feed  the  baby  bees, 
others  build  new  cells  of  wax  and  still  others  stand 
guard  at  the  door  of  the  hive. 

The  Life  of  a  JVorker. — About  three  days  after  the 
tiny  white  egg  is  laid  in  a  cell  of  the  honey-comb  it 
hatches  into  a  very  small  larva.     The  nurse  bees  im- 


A    MODERN    TEN-FRAME    HIVE. 


mediately  surround  it  with  a  white,  milk-like  food  and 
it  grows  rapidly,  sometimes  doubling  in  size  in  twenty- 
four  hours.  In  six  days  more,  or  in  about  ten  days 
after  the  egg  is  laid,  the  larva  is  so  large  that  it  fills  the 
entire  cell.  It  needs  no  more  food,  for  it  is  now  ready 
to  enter  the  pupal  stage.  The  nurse  bees  cover  the 
cell  with  a  waxen  cap  and  the  little  bee  is  left  undis- 
turbed. Within  the  sealed  cell  a  wonderful  change 
is  taking  place.  The  larva  spins  a  thin  cocoon  about 
itself  and  gradually  changes  to  a  pupa,  with  its  head, 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


303 


wings  and  legs  just  beginning  to  grow.  In  eleven  or 
twelve  days  after  it  is  shut  up  in  its  little  house,  or 
twenty-one  days  after  the  egg  is  laid,  it  becomes  a  full- 
grown  bee.  It  eats  away  the  covering  of  the  cell  and 
in  a  few  hours  it  looks  like  any  other  bee  and  takes  up 
its  part  of  the  work.  The  queens  are  developed  in 
cells  much  larger  than  those  which  are  occupied  by  the 
young  workers,  and  only  sixteen  days  are  required  for 


A   FRAME    OF    BEES. 


their  growth.     The  drones  require  about  twenty-three 
or  twenty-four  days  for  their  development. 

Swarming. — In  spring  and  early  summer,  when 
there  is  plenty  of  honey  and  there  are  many  young 
workers  in  the  hive,  the  bees  make  preparations  for 
swarming.  One  or  more  young  queens  are  raised,  and 
on  a  bright  morning  the  bees  swarm.  Thousands  of 
them  rush  out  of  the  doorway  of  the  hive  and  take 
wing.  Round  and  round  they  circle  in  the  air,  hum- 
ming a  merry  tune.     The  old  mother  queen  joins  them 


304  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

and  away  goes  the  swarm,  leaving  the  young  queen  and 
the  young  bees  in  full  possession  of  the  old  home. 
The  swarm  may  fly  a  few  feet,  or  several  miles  away. 
Finally  it  settles  on  a  limb.  When  the  bees  are  thus 
settled  on  a  limb  they  are  easily  captured  and  placed 
In  a  new  hive.  If  the  bee-keeper  fails  to  catch  them 
they  usually  find  their  way  to  a  hollow  tree,  or  into  the 
wall  of  a  building,  and  there  set  up  their  housekeeping. 

Products  of  the  Bee. — The  best-known  product  of 
the  bee  Is  honey.  The  flavor  of  honey,  as  well  as  Its 
color,  Is  determined  mainly  by  the  kinds  of  flowers 
from  which  the  bees  obtain  nectar,  for  honey  is  merely 
the  nectar  of  flowers  brought  to  the  hive,  stored  In  the 
cells  of  the  comb  and  allowed  to  evaporate  until  it  Is 
thick  enough  to  "  keep." 

Beeswax  is  not  gathered  from  flowers,  but  Is  secreted 
by  glands  located  on  the  under  side  of  the  workers' 
abdomens.  From  the  wax  the  comb  Is  built,  the  bees 
using  their  jaws  to  mold  and  plaster  the  particles  of 
wax  into  cells.  Propolis,  or  "  bee-glue,"  is  a  sticky  sub- 
stance gathered  from  certain  flowers  and  used  by  the 
workers  to  stop  up  cracks  in  the  hive. 

Exercise. — ^Visit  open  flowers  and  notice  bees  at  work.  Observe 
how  the  long  tongue  is  thrust  deeply  into  the  flower  to  sip  up  the 
nectar.  If  the  bee  is  gathering  pollen  see  where  it  is  placed.  Does 
the  bee  carry  the  pollen  away  on  the  outside  of  its  body?     Where? 

Get  an  experienced  bee-keeper  in  the  community  to  give  the  class 
a  talk  on  bees,  illustrating  it  with  implements  used  in  bee-keeping, 
such  as  smoker,  veil,  honey-knife,  etc.  On  a  warm,  bright  day  take 
the  class  to  visit  a  bee-yard  or  "  apiary,"  if  any  is  near  at  hand. 


Section  XLIX. — Wild  Birds. 

By  Prof.  E.  H.  Forbush, 
State  Ornithologist  of  Massachusetts. 

The  relations  of  birds  to  agriculture  are  not  yet  fully 
understood.  Nevertheless  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
great  majority  of  birds  that  frequent  farm  lands,  as 
well  as  most  of  the  species  living  In  Inhabited  regions, 
are  either  beneficial  to  man  or  neutral  rather  than  in- 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS.  3°5 

jurlous.  Even  those  that  the  farmer  considers  as 
among  his  chief  enemies  are  often  found  to  be  far  more 
useful  than  harmful  when  their  food  habits  are  studied 
with  scientific  care.  Whenever  a  bird  attacks  poultry, 
fruit  or  grain  its  ravages  are  conspicuous.  But  many 
birds  may  feed  on  the  enemies  of  fruit,  grain  or  poul- 
try without  attracting  our  attention  in  the  least. 
Therefore  the  harm  that  birds  do  is  often  exaggerated, 
while  the  good  offices  they  perform  are  either  unnoticed 
or  underestimated. 

Beneficial  Species. — It  sometimes  happens  that  the 
investigator  finds  so  many  factors  entering  into  the 
food  relations  of  a  bird  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  species  Is  beneficial.  But  no  family 
of  birds  can  be  regarded  as  wholly  inimical  to  the 
farmer,  and  only  a  few  species  in  any  country  can  be 
regarded  as  injurious.  Species  vary  greatly  In  Im- 
portance and  usefulness  when  looked  at  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  agriculturist.  Some  appear  to  be  of  little 
or  no  economic  worth,  while  the  services  of  others  seem 
absolutely  essential  to  successful  Husbandry,  Horticul- 
ture or  Forestry. 

The  Good  that  Birds  Do. — They  are  well  fitted  by 
nature  for  their  peculiar  office.  Their  flight  Is  remark- 
ably swift  and  well  sustained.  Their  sight  is  keen  and 
telescopic,  and  they  are  endowed  with  a  tremendous 
capacity  for  devouring,  digesting  and  assimilating  food. 
The  muscular  exertion  put  forth  by  birds  in  their  every- 
day occupations  is  extreme.  They  are  so  energetic 
and  active  that  they  need  far  more  food  than  is  re- 
quired by  mammals.  It  is  not  unusual  for  the  growing 
young  of  certain  species  of  birds  to  consume  daily  an 
amount  of  food  fully  equal  to  their  own  weight,  and 
the  quantity  eaten  by  many  small  land  birds  is  so  large 
that  when  they  forage  In  flocks  on  the  crops  of  the 
farmer  they  cause  excessive  loss;  but  the  severity  of 
such  losses  only  serves  as  an  indication  of  the  amount 
of  good  that  birds  do  In  devouring  the  destructive  in- 
sect enemies  of  the  same  crops. 


3o6  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

Necessity  for  Birds. — Huxley  tells  us  that  were  the 
increase  of  a  species  of  aphis  (a  small  insect)  to  go 
on  unchecked  the  progeny  of  a  single  female  in  one 
year  would  equal  in  bulk  the  population  of  the  Chi- 
nese Empire.  Birds  operate  to  prevent  this  increase. 
Many  instances  are  on  record  where  birds,  gathering 
from  far  and  near,  have  saved  trees  or  crops  from  de- 
struction by  insects  or  other  pests.  If  the  birds  were 
all  destroyed  and  their  repressive  influence  on  the  in- 
crease of  insect  life  thus  removed,  an  unparalleled  in- 


Nestling.  Adult. 

FOOD   OF  CUCKOO. 
I,  Spider;  2,  stink-bug;  3,  May-beetle;  4,  grasshopper;  s,  caterpillar;  6,  cut-worm. 

crease  of  insects  might  be  expected  to  follow.  The 
local  destruction  and  extirpation  of  birds  has  been  fol- 
lowed in  all  recorded  cases  by  an  increase  of  pests,  a 
consequent  serious  injury  to  vegetation,  and  even  at 
times  by  famine  among  the  inhabitants. 

The  Food  of  Birds. — The  investigations  regarding 
the  food  of  birds  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Biological 
Survey  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture have  proved  conclusively  that  birds  feed  very 
largely  on  many  of  the  most  destructive  insects  of 
farm,  field  and  forest,  as  well  as  on  the  seeds  of  per- 
nicious weeds.     The  capacity  birds  show  for  such  food 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


307 


is  indicated  by  the  following  records  of  the  contents  of 
a  few  birds'  stomachs : 


I  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo 250  Tent  Caterpillars 

1  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo 217  Fall  Webworms 

2  Flickers 800  Ants 

I  Nighthawk 500  Mosquitoes 

I           "          60  Grasshoppers 

I           "          1000  Ants 

3  Mourning  Doves 23100  Seeds  (largely  weed  seeds) 

I  Snowflake 1 500  Weed  Seeds 

When  it  is  considered  that  the  contents  of  a  stomach 
represents  but  a  single  meal,  that  the  stomach  of  a  bird 
is   ordinarily   filled  many   times   daily,  and  that  large 


THE  DIAGRAM  ON  THE  LEFT  REPRESENTS  THE   FOOD  OF  A  CHIPPING 
SPARROW;    THAT   ON    THE    RIGHT,    THE    FOOD    OF    A    SONG   SPARROW. 

numbers  of  birds  can  be  assembled  quickly  where  they 
are  most  needed,  the  capacity  of  the  bird  for  good  be- 
comes evident. 

Every  farmer  should  know  what  families  of  birds 
are  of  most  service  to  him,  for  then  he  will  be  able  to 
do  something  intelligently  to  protect  and  increase  such 
birds  upon  his  own  land. 


Exercise.— Name  the  wild  birds  you  are  familiar  with.     Make  a 
list  of  the  wild  birds  that  stay  all  the  year. 


3o8  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Section  L. — Birds  of  Orchard  and  Woodland. 

Those  birds  that  live  largely  upon  the  enemies  of 
trees  are  indispensable  to  man,  for  it  is  impracticable 
if  not  impossible  for  him  by  artificial  means  to  pre- 
serve and  protect  the  trees  from  their  enemies.  Some- 
thing he  may  do  within  the  narrow  limits  of  the  or- 
chard, but  he  is  practically  powerless  to  conserve  the 
forests  without  the  aid  of  birds  and  other  natural  ene- 
mies of  insects  and  rodents. 

Birds  Regulate  Plant  Growth. — Many  birds  that 
feed  on  seeds  vie  with  the  squirrels  in  distributing 
seeds,  and  so  rank  high  as  forest  planters.  Others 
prune  the  trees  by  nipping  off  buds.  Still  others  regu- 
late the  increase  of  certain  insects  that  otherwise  would 
prune  the  trees  too  closely,  but  that  when  controlled 
by  birds  exert  only  a  moderate  beneficent,  restraining 
influence  on  the  exuberance  of  plant  growth. 

Woodpecker  Family. — First  among  the  birds  that 
feed  on  wood-eating  insects  is  the  woodpecker  family. 
This  family  comprises  a  highly  specialized  group  of 
birds,  the  more  typical  of  which  are  especially  fitted 
for  digging  into  the  trunks  and  limbs  of  trees  and  ex- 
tracting ants  and  other  wood-boring  insects  from  their 
hiding  places.  The  utility  of  the  woodpeckers  is  now 
quite  generally  recognized  by  orchardists  and  forest- 
ers, both  here  and  abroad.  The  common  Downy 
Woodpecker  of  the  Eastern  United  States  is  one  of 
the  chief  enemies  of  timber  ants,  wood-boring  beetles 
and  moths,  codling  moths  and  certain  plant  lice  and 
scale  insects. 

Nuthatches  and  Chickadees. — The  nuthatches  and 
the  titmice  or  chickadees  are  nearly,  if  not  quite,  as  im- 
portant as  the  woodpeckers,  for  they  feed  very  largely 
on  destructive  insects  that  hide  in  crevices  in  the  bark, 
in  holes  or  cavities  or  burrow  within  the  buds,  twigs  or 
fruit.  The  common  chickadee  is  one  of  the  most 
serviceable  of  all.     The  woodpeckers,  nuthatches  and 


INSECTS   AND    BIRDS. 


309 


BLUE  JAY,  A  VALUABLE  BIRD  FOR  THE  FARMER. 

chickadees  are  doubly  useful,  because  they  guard  the 
trees  during  the  entire  year.  When,  in  winter,  most 
other  birds  are  absent  these  busy  gleaners  are  search- 
ing every  crevice  and  cranny  for  the  hibernating  larvae, 
pupae,  or  eggs  of  insects  that  have  escaped  the  summer 
birds.  The  chickadee  ranks  among  the  greatest  enemies 


310  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

of  such  fruit  tree  pests  as  the  codling  moth,  the  tent 
caterpillar,  the  gypsy  moth  and  the  cankerworm,  and 
it  is  also  destructive  to  bark  borers  and  scale  insects. 

The  Tree  Guardians. — Among  the  birds  that  are 
essential  to  the  trees  are  the  creepers  and  the  kinglets, 
the  warblers,  vireos,  tanagers,  orioles  and  the  jays, 
all  of  which  excel  in  guarding  the  limbs  and  foliage  of 
trees  against  the  attacks  of  many  of  the  greatest  insect 
pests  known.  When  the  developing  insects  escape  all 
these  and,  assuming  wings,  launch  out  into  the  air  they 
are  met  by  the  flycatchers  that,  sitting  on  some  van- 


Nestling.  Adult. 

FOOD  OF  BANK   SWALLOW. 

I,  Weevil;  2,  ichneumon-fly;  3,  winged  ant;  4,  fly;  5,  dragon-fly;  6,  stink-bug. 

tage  point,  pursue  and  catch  them  in  the  air,  while 
above  and  around  all,  sweep  the  swift  swallows  and 
nighthawks  that  pursue  their  prey  even  into  the  upper 
regions  of  the  air.  On  the  ground  below,  the  thrushes, 
sparrows,  blackbirds  and  towhees  pick  up  the  insects 
that  fall  to  the  ground,  or  they  scratch  for  insects 
among  the  dead  leaves  on  the  forest  floor.  All  these 
families  of  birds  together  form  the  inner  and  outer 
circles  that  guard  the  tree,  and  all  should  be  protected 
by  the  farmer. 

Exercise. — Make  as  complete  a  list  as  possible  of  the  orchard 
and  woodland  birds  and  their  food.  If  one  bird  eats  150  insects  a 
day,  how  many  insects  will  four  birds  eat  in  seven  months? 


INSECTS    AND   BIRDS. 


311 


Section  LI. — Birds  of  the  Field  and  Garden. 

Birds  Protect  the  Grass  Crop. — The  services  of 
birds  in  the  field  are  quite  as  essential  as  in  the  forest. 
The  task  of  protecting  the  grass  in  the  field  from  the 
attacks  of  insects  is  quite  as  impossible  for  the  farmer 
as  that  of  protecting  the  forest  trees.      Birds  must  al- 


A   TYPICAL    SEED   EATER — WHITE-THROATED    SPARROW. 

ways  be  relied  upon  as  protectors  of  the  grass  crop 
from  locusts,  grasshoppers,  leafhoppers,  cutworms, 
grubs  and  most  of  the  injurious  insects  of  the  fields. 
Professor  Herbert  Osborn  has  shown  that  on  an  acre 
of  pasture  land  there  are  often  a  million  leafhoppers, 
which  consume  unnoticed  as  much  grass  as  a  cow. 
Were  these  not  held  in  check  by  the  birds  which  eat 
them,  they  might  increase  so  in  numbers  as  to  consume 
all  the  grass.     Instances  are  on  record  where  the  ab- 


313  FUNDAMENTALS    OF  AGRICULTURE. 

solute  failure  of  the  grass  crop  has  followed  the  de- 
struction of  birds  by  the  farmers.  Wherever  the 
numbers  of  field  birds  are  greatly  reduced,  insects  in- 
crease and  the  grass  crop  suffers  in  proportion. 

Nesting  Places. — In  the  field,  as  in  the  forest,  birds 
find  hidden  nesting  places,  and  an  opportunity  to  rear 
their  young  in  safety;  but  the  young  suffer  from  the 
effects  of  early  grass-cutting,  which  exposes  them  to 
the  burning  sun  and  to  the  attacks  of  their  enemies, 
even  if  they  are  not  killed  by  the  operations  of  hay- 
making. Nevertheless  the  first  broods  of  the  early- 
nesting  birds  usually  are  on  the  wing  by  haying  time. 

Value  of  Garden  Birds. — In  the  garden,  on  the  con- 
trary, birds  find  little  chance  to  breed,  for  the  opera- 
tions of  tillage  tend  to  destroy  their  nests.  Now  and 
then  a  sparrow  may  safely  rear  her  young  in  a  potato 
hill;  but  few  birds  can  nest  in  the  garden  or  cultivated 
field,  except  where  small  fruits,  trees,  or  vines  are 
planted.  For  this  reason  birds  are  less  serviceable  in 
the  garden  than  in  field  or  forest.  Birds  which  breed 
in  orchard  or  woodland  are  nevertheless  of  great  utility 
in  gardens  or  cultivated  fields  nearby,  and  the  birds  of 
the  air,  including  the  swallows,  martins,  swifts  and 
nighthawks  perform  some  of  their  most  beneficent 
services  unnoticed,  while  skimming  over  garden  and 
field.  Doves,  sparrows,  blackbirds,  larks,  quail  and 
other  ground-feeding  birds  destroy  enormous  quanti- 
ties of  weed  seeds  during  all  seasons  when  these  seeds 
are  to  be  found.  Prof.  F.  E.  L.  Beal  estimates  that 
the  tree  sparrows  of  Iowa  eat  875  tons  of  weed  seeds 
annually,  and  the  experts  of  the  Biological  Survey  have 
computed  that  native  sparrows  save  the  farmers  of  the 
United  States  $35,000,000  each  year  in  this  manner. 

Useful  Species  for  the  Farm. — The  thrushes  are 
valuable  birds  from  the  standpoint  of  the  husband- 
man. Chief  among  them  Is  the  American  robin. 
This  bird,  although  noted  for  its  fruit  eating  propen- 
sities, is  nevertheless  one  of  the  most  useful  species  on 
the  farm.     It  feeds  mainly  on  fields  and  cultivated  land 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS.  313 

where  it  finds  destructive  grubs  and  cutworms  and 
many  injurious  beetles,  in  addition  to  the  common 
earthworms,  which  is  only  one  item  in  its  bill  of  fare. 
The  favorite  bluebird  eats  very  little  fruit  and,  like  the 
robin,  feeds  on  field  insects  as  well  as  on  caterpillars. 

JVrens  are  among  the  best  helpers  in  both  orchard 
and  garden.  The  great  sparrow  family  is  valuable 
not  only  in  keeping  down  weeds,  but  also  in  destroying 
insects.  The  native  sparrows  are  absolutely  indispen- 
sable to  the  man  who  cultivates  the  soil  as  they  hold  in 
check  some  of  the  worst  pests  of  field  and  garden. 
Blackbirds  of  all  species  are  pre-eminent  as  destroyers 
of  grubs,  grasshoppers  and  caterpillars,  and  even  the 
crow,  though  often  a  nuisance  to  the  farmer,  and  a 
destroyer  of  small  birds,  is  a  very  necessary  evil  in 
grasshopper  time. 

The  Bobolink,  although  a  pest  to  the  rice  farmer  of 
the  South,  is  a  blessing  in  the  fields  of  the  North. 
Mourning  doves  are 
among  the  most  voracious 
of  weed  destroyers.  Bob- 
whites  and  meadow  larks 
are  now  generally  be- 
lieved to  rank  higher 
than  all  the  other  birds  nesting  mourning  doves. 
of  the  farm  as  destroy- 
ers of  insect  and  weed  pests  of  the  garden  and  field. 
It  will  pay  the  farmer  to  protect  all  the  above  men- 
tioned birds,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  crow. 

Birds  are  Valuable  to  the  Farmer. — There  are  many 
birds  beside  the  bobwhite  on  the  game  list  that  are 
worth  far  more  to  the  farmer  alive  in  his  fields  than  the 
small  sum  he  can  get  for  them  in  the  market.  One 
farmer  who  has  observed  carefully  the  habits  of  the 
bobwhite  says  that  he  considers  every  one  in  his  fields 
worth  five  dollars  a  year  to  him  as  an  insect  destroyer. 
While  this  may  be  an  exaggeration  it  is  easy  to  com- 
pute the  annual  value  to  the  farmer  of  a  family  of  bob- 
whites  or  meadow  larks  at  somewhere  near  that  figure. 


314  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Sandpipers,  plover,  grouse,  wild  ducks,  herons,  and 
even  some  of  the  gulls  and  other  water  birds  have  been 
recorded  as  among  the  chief  friends  of  the  farmer 
during  great  insect  eruptions  in  the  western  states. 
The  history  of  the  invasions  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
locust  and  the  western  cricket  is  replete  with  instances 
where  crops  were  saved  by  gulls,  plover,  sandpipers 
and  other  birds  of  the  open. 

Exercise. — Make  a  rough  estimate  of  the  vahie  of  bobwhites  to  the 
farmers  of  your  community,  when  one  bobwhite  is  worth  $5  a  year. 


Section  LII. — Other  Birds. 

Birds  Keep  Down  Disease. — The  services  of  the 
swallows,  martins,  swifts,  nighthawks  and  whippoor- 
wills  are  not  generally  understood;  but  among  the  in- 
sects destroyed  by  these  birds  are  vast  numbers  of  flies 
and  mosquitoes.  Five  hundred  mosquitoes  have  been 
found  in  the  stomach  of  a  single  nighthawk.  Whip- 
poorwills  and  swifts  destroy  millions  of  them.  Swal- 
lows not  only  rank  high  among  fly-catching  insects,  but 
they  also  sweep  the  grass  tops  and  eat  countless  myr- 
iads of  field  and  garden  pests.  Martins  are  particu- 
larly useful  about  the  garden.  Two  quarts  of  the 
wingcases  of  the  striped  cucumber  beetle  were  found 
in  a  martin  box  at  the  close  of  the  season. 

Utility  of  the  Birds  of  Prey. — The  eagles,  hawks 
and  owls  have  been  regarded  from  time  immemorial 
as  among  the  chief  bird  enemies  of  the  farmer.  Not- 
withstanding the  position  which  has  been  assigned  them 
by  time-honored  prejudice,  most  of  the  birds  of  prey 
are  beneficial  to  agriculture,  and  some  of  the  owls  are 
among  the  most  useful  of  birds.  A  few  species  of 
hawks  and  owls  are  very  destructive  to  poultry  and 
game,  but  among  the  others  only  an  occasional  individ- 
ual is  the  culprit,  while  the  many  seldom  or  never  at- 
tack poultry.     Most  hawks  and  owls  feed  on  perni- 


INSECTS   AND   BIRDS. 


315 


cious  rodents,  such  as  house  rats  and  mice,  field  mice, 
wood  mice  and  gophers. 

Many  hawks  and  owls  feed  largely  on  injurious  in- 
sects. It  has  been  estimated  that  a  single  species  of 
hawk  saves  the  western  farmers  more  than  $57,600 
annually  during  the  grasshopper  season.  It  is  histori- 
cal that  certain  species  of  field  mice  increase  enor- 
mously wherever  their  natural  enemies  are  not  suffi- 
ciently numerous  to  check  them.     These  irruptions  of 


WOODCOCK. 


field  mice  always  prove  destructive  to  vegetation,  but 
they  are  usually  checked  by  the  migration  of  hawks, 
owls  and  other  birds  that  feed  on  them,  and  that  as- 
semble in  flocks  for  that  purpose.  Even  the  eagles, 
though  in  many  cases  destructive  to  farm  stock,  are 
often  valuable  in  destroying  vermin. 

The  Protection  of  Useful  Birds. — The  farmer  is 
usually  so  situated  that  he  can  readily  protect  many 
species  of  birds  upon  his  farm.  He  can  also  attract 
the  birds  by  feeding  them,  putting  up  bird  houses  and 
nesting  boxes,  or  by  planting  or  preserving  wild  plants 
which    furnish   birds'    food.     The    study   of   friendly 


3i6 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


birds  and  their  protection  is  certainly  of  as  much  value 
to  the  farmer  as  the  studv  of  his  insect  foes. 


IMPROVISED    BIRD    BOXES. 

(Courtesy  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies.) 

Exercise. — Are  there  any  people  that  you  know  who  are  pro- 
tecting the  birds?  State  their  methods.  Has  your  state  a  game 
law? 

Note,  for  the  Teacher. — Take  the  class  out  to  the  fields  and 
point  out  the  beneficial  species  of  birds.  Encourage  the  pupils  to 
build  bird  houses  in  their  dooryards.  Tin  cans,  old  boxes,  etc.,  will 
make  excellent  nesting  places.  If  one  class  becomes  imbued  with 
the  importance  of  bird  protection  a  great  deal  of  good  will  be  ac- 
complished for  the  farmers  of  your  community.  This  subject  can  be 
made  very  interesting  by  the  proper  presentation. 


r'eferences  for  collateral  reading. 

Insects  : 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1895 — The  principal  insect  enemies  of  the  grape. 

1908 — Information  about  spraying  for  orchard  insects. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

47 — Insects  affecting  the  cotton  plant. 

99-296 — Insect  enemies  of  shade  trees. 

120 — Insects  affecting  tobacco. 

127 — Important  insecticides. 

132 — Insect  enemies  of  growing  wheat. 

133 — Clearing  houses  of  flies. 

155 — How  insects  affect  health  in  rural  districts. 

172 — Scale  insects  and  mites  on  citrus  trees. 

244-261-309 — The  cattle  tick. 

264 — The  brown-tail  moth  and  how  to  control  it. 


INSECTS   AND    BIRDS.  317 

27s — The  gipsy  moth  and  how  to  control  it. 

283 — Spraying  for  apple  diseases  and  the  codling  moth  in 

the  Ozarks. 
284 — Insect  and  fungus  diseases   of  the  grape  east  of  the 

Rocky  Mountains. 
290 — The  cotton  boll  worm. 
344 — The  boll  weevil  problem. 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bulletins, 
Nos. : 

13 — Circular  on  Mosquitoes. 
71 — Circular  on  House-flies. 
^2 — The  North  American  fever  tick. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

38 — New  Hampshire — Forest  tent  caterpillar. 
39 — New  Hampshire — The  army  worm. 
44 — New  Hampshire — The  cankerworm. 
51 — Missouri — The  chinch-bug. 

181 — Virginia — Wormy  apples  and  how  to  prevent  them. 
252 — New  York — Cornell — Insect  pests  and  plant  diseases. 
For  other  literature  on  insects,  address  the  Bureau  of  Entomology, 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  the  State  Experi- 
ment Stations  and  Crop  Pest  Commissions. 
Bees: 

Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. : 

59 — Beekeeping. 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

70 — Report  of  the  meeting  of  inspectors  of  apiaries. 
75 — Beekeeping  in  Massachusetts. 
Birds : 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 
1895 — Four  common  birds  of  the  farm. 
1896 — The  blue  jay  and  its  food. 
1897 — Useful  birds  and  harmful  birds. 
1900 — How  birds  affect  the  orchard. 
1908 — The  relation  between  birds  and  insects. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,   Nos. : 
54 — Some  common  birds. 
366 — The  crow. 
zyd — Game  laws  for  1909. 
383 — How  to  destroy  English  sparrows. 
Bureau  of  Entomology,  Bulletins,  Nos.  : 
6 — The  common  crow. 

15 — The  relation  of  sparrows  to  agriculture. 
The  publications  of  the  Biological  Survey,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture and   the  pamphlets   issued  by   the   National   Association  of 
Audubon  Societies,   141   Broadway,  N.   Y.   City,  contain  interesting 
literature  on  birds. 
Books : 

How  to  Keep  Bee.s — Comstock — Doubleday,   Page  &  Co.,  New 

York  City. 
ABC   and   X   Y   Z   of   Bee    Culture— A.    I.    Root    Pub.    Co., 

Medina,  Ohio. 
Useful  Birds  and  Their  Protection — Forbush — Mass.  Board  of 
Agriculture,  Boston. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

LIVE-STOCK  AND   DAIRYING. 

Section  LIII. — Principles  of  Animal  Breeding 
AND  Grading. 

By  Prof.  E.  S.  Good, 
Department  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Kentucky  State  University. 

All  domestic  animals  were  at  one  time  wild,  and  only 
those  survived  which  were  fitted  by  nature  to  endure 
climatic,  food,  and  other  conditions  of  the  country  in 
which  they  lived.  This  process  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest  is  known  as  *'  natural  selection." 

Variation  and  Artificial  Selection. — As  man  pro- 
gressed these  wild  animals  were  domesticated,  and  find- 
ing that  they  did  not  fully  meet  his  wants,  he  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  law  of  "  variation,"  which  is,  briefly — 
that  the  offspring  will  present  certain  characteristics  of 
size,  color,  quality,  etc.,  not  possessed  by  either  parent. 
By  selecting  those  animals  that  varied  to  suit  his  needs 
and  taste,  he  has  developed  our  present  types  of  do- 
mestic animals.  This  process  is  known  as  "  artificial 
selection." 

Heredity. — While  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  off- 
spring to  vary  from  the  parents  in  some  particular  or 
particulars,  yet  in  the  main  they  will  resemble  them, 
or  near  relatives,  and  this  is  known  as  the  "  law  of 
heredity."  Reversion. — If  an  animal  is  born  with 
some  characteristic  common  to  its  distant  ancestors,  it 
is  known  as  a  case  of  "reversion"  which  is  illustrated, 
for  instance,  by  a  Devon  cow  (a  breed  red  in  color) 
giving  birth  to  a  white  calf  resembling  its  ancestors,  the 
"  Wild  White  Cattle  of  the  Park."  It  must  not  be 
understood   that   variation   and   selection   alone   have 

318 


LIVE-STOCK   AND    DAIRYING.  319 

given  us  our  different  types  of  animals,  for  climate, 
food  and  care  have  played  an  important  role.  There 
are  other  terms  used  in  live-stock  operations,  such  as 
pure-breeds,  scrubs,  cross-breeds  and  grades,  which  the 
student  should  understand.  A  pure-bred  animal  is 
one  whose  sire  and  dam  belong  to  the  same  breed.  A 
scrub  is  an  animal  whose  ancestors  belonged  to  no  dis- 
tinct breed.  A  cross-breed  is  one  having  for  its  par- 
ents animals  belonging  to  two  distinct  breeds.  A 
grade  is  an  animal  having  a  pure-bred  animal  for  one 
parent  and  a  scrub  for  the  other.  There  are  more 
scrubs  in  this  country  than  there  are  pure-breeds,  cross- 
breeds and  grades  combined. 

Grading  up  Live-stock. — Millions  of  dollars  could 
be  added  to  the  profits  of  farming  in  the  United  States, 
if  the  people  would  pay  more  attention  to  the  breed- 
ing, care  and  feeding  of  their  live-stock.  For  exam- 
ple, the  average  milk  cow  of  the  United  States  pro- 
duces but  150  pounds  of  butter  a  year,  scarcely  enough 
to  pay  for  the  feed  she  eats.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  pure-bred  parent  has  more  influence  in  determin- 
ing the  form,  color  and  useful  qualities  of  the  offspring 
than  a  scrub  parent,  or  in  other  words,  the  pure-bred 
parent  is  called  "  prepotent."  By  taking  advantage 
of  this  fact  the  farmer  can,  by  continued  use  of  pure- 
bred sires  of  a  certain  breed,  soon  build  up  a  herd  of 
grades  that  for  all  practical  purposes  are  nearly  as 
good  as  pure-breeds.  The  young  of  a  pure-bred  male 
and  a  scrub  female  is  a  half-blood;  the  offspring  of  a 
half-blood  female  and  a  pure-bred  male  is  three- 
quarters  pure;  the  next  generation  of  this  system  of 
breeding  would  be  seven-eighths  pure,  or  a  high  grade. 
This  cannot  be  done,  however,  by  using  a  sire  of  one 
breed  at  one  time,  and  a  sire  of  another  breed  at  an- 
other time.  It  is  unwise  to  use  anything  but  pure-bred 
sires,  as  the  characteristics  of  grades  or  cross-breeds 
are  unstable  and  improvement  is  uncertain. 

Exercise. — Are  any  of  the  farmers  of  your  vicinity  making  an  ef- 
fort to  build  up  their  stock  with  a  pure-bred  sire  ?    What  is  the  aver- 


320  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

age  butter  production  of  the  dairy  cow  in  your  section  in  pounds  per 
year?  If  you  had  a  herd  of  scrubs,  how  would  you  improve  the 
herd?  If  you  live  in  the  South,  would  you  purchase  live-stock  from 
the  North  or  from  the  South?    Why? 


Section  LIV. — Types  and  Breeds  of  Horses. 

By  Prof.  E.  S.  Good, 
Department  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Kentucky  State  University. 

Horses  like  cattle  are  not  native  to  America.  There 
are  four  principal  classes  of  horses  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  man,  namely:  The  Draft,  Coach  or  Carriage, 
Light  Driving  and  Saddle  Horse. 

I.  Draft  Horse. — This  type  of  horse  is  large  and 
powerful,  weighing  from  1,500  to  2,200  pounds.     The 


DRAFT   TYPE — PERCHERON. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


321 


DRAFT   TYPE — BELGIAN. 


weighty  draft  horse  Is  used  largely  in  the  cities  to  haul 
heavy  loads,  while  the  lighter  ones  are  used  to  a  large 
extent  on  the  farms.  The  following  are  the  four  prin- 
cipal breeds  of  draft  horses  seen  in  America : 

fPercheron Developed  in  France. 

Breeds  of  Draft  Horses.  J  Belgian Developed  in  Belgium. 

I  Clydesdale ....  Developed  in  Scotland. 
IShire Developed  in  England. 

Percheron. — The  Percheron  Is  a  deep-bodied,  short- 
legged,  massive  type  of  draft  horse.  Usually  the  col- 
ors are  light  or  dark  gray,  although  black  is  common, 
and  brown  sometimes  occurs.  The  Percheron  Is  a 
popular  draft  breed  in  the  Western  States. 

Belgian. — This  breed  of  draft  horse  resembles  the 
Percheron,  though  the  Belgians  are  more  blocky  of 
body,  and  the  legs  are  shorter.     The  colors  are  roan, 


322  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


DRAFT   TiPE — CLYDESDALE. 


chestnut,  bay  and  gray,  although  gray  is  not  a  popular 
color  in  this  breed, 

Clydesdale. — The  horses  of  this  draft  breed  are  a 
little  longer  of  leg,  and  not  quite  so  deep  in  body  as  the 
Percherons  and  Belgians.  The  principal  colors  are 
bay  or  brown,  though  blacks  are  sometimes  seen. 
Many  horses  of  this  breed  have  white  markings  usually 
confined  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs  and  a  stripe  in 
the  face.  White  feet  are  very  common.  From  the 
back  of  the  cannon  grows  an  abundance  of  long  silky 
hair  called  "  the  feather." 

Shire. — The  Shire  looks  so  much  like  the  Clydes- 
dale that  at  times  it  is  difficult  to  tell  them  apart.  How- 
ever, the  Shire  is  a  little  heavier  than  the  Clydesdale, 
and  has  not  quite  as  good  action. 

The  Score  Card  is  a  great  help  to  a  beginner  in  mak-, 
ing  a  study  of  a  horse  in  detail  after  he  has  learned" 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


323 


the  names  of  the  different  parts  of  that  animal  as  are 
shown  on  page  324.  The  description  after  each  part 
of  a  horse  teaches  one  how  it  should  look  when  cor- 
rectly formed  and  of  the  right  quality.  The  number 
placed  after  each  part  or  quality  represents  the  relative 
importance  of  one  part  as  compared  with  another,  as 
determined  by  expert  judges.  If  a  horse  were  perfect 
he  would  score  a  hundred  points,  but  no  horse  good 
enough  for  that  has  ever  existed.  It  takes  an  excep- 
tionally good  horse  to  score  ninety  points.  After  a 
student  has  scored  a  number  of  horses  he  should  lay 
aside  the  score  card  and  learn  to  scan  the  entire  animal 
quickly,  noting  in  his  mind  the  good  and  poor  points 
of  the  animal. 


DRAFT    TYPE — SHIRE. 


LOCATION   AND   NAMES   OF   THE   DIFFERENT   PARTS   OF   THE   HORSE. 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THE  PROPER  SHAPE  OF  FORE  AND  HIND  LEGS  OF  A 

HORSE. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


325 


SCORE   CARD  FOR   DRAFT  HORSES 


Perfect 
Score 


Student's :  Corrected 
Score  Score 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Form,  broad,  massive,  low  set,  proportioned 

Quality,  bone  clean,  yet  indicating  sufficient  sub- 
stance, tendons  distinct,  skin  and  hair  fine 

Temperament,  energetic,  good  disposition 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Head,  lean,  medium  size 

Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried 

Neck,  muscled;  crest  high;  throatlatchfine;  wind- 
pipe large 

FOREQUARTERS: 

Shoulders,  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending  into 
back 

Arm,  short,  thrown  forward 

Forearm,  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide 

Knees,  wide,  clean  cut,  straight,  deep,  strongly  sup- 
ported   

Cannons,  short,  lean,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back. 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 

Pasterns,  sloping,  lengthy,  strong 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  straight;  horn  dense;  dark 
color;  sole  concave;  bars  strong;  frog  large,  elas- 
tic; heel  wide,  high,  one-half  length  of  toe 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the 
point  of  the  shoulders  should  fall  upon  the 
center  of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot. 
From  the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from 
the  center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the 
center  of  the  knee  and  pastern  joints  and  back  of 

hoof 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  low;  large  girth 

Ribs,  long,  close,  well  sprung 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad 

Loin,  wide,  short,  thick,  straight 

Underline,  flank  low 

HINDQUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide 

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 

Thighs,  muscular 

8UARTERS,  deep,  heavily  muscled 
askins  or  Lower  Thighs,  wide  muscled 

Hocks,  clean  cut,  wide,  straight 

Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 

Pasterns,  sloping,  strong,  lengthy 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  straight;  horn  dense;  dark 
color;  sole  concave;  bars  strong;  frog  large,  elas- 
tic; heel  wide,  high,  one-half  length  of  toe 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  cen- 
ter of  the  hock  cannon,  pastern,  and  foot.  From 
the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide 
the  gaskin  in  the  middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  run  parallel 

with  the  line  of  the  cannon 

ACTION: 

Walk,  smooth,  quick,  long,  balanced 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular 


Total. 


326 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


A   COACH   HORSE. 


2.  The  Carriage  or  Coach  Type. — Horses  of  this 
type  are  smaller  than  the  draft  type,  and  have  smooth, 
graceful  body  lines,  arched  necks  and  neat  heads. 
When  a  coach  horse  walks  and  trots  he  must  be  a 
stylish  high  stepper.  The  coach  horse  stands  about 
i6  hands*  high  and  weighs  from  i,ioo  to  1,250 
pounds.  The  stallions  of  the  distinct  coach  breeds, 
however,  usually  weigh  more  than  this.  Horses  of 
this  class  are  used  to  draw  coaches  or  heavy  carriages. 
There  are  several  distinct  coach  breeds,  although  some 
of  the  larger  horses  of  the  breed,  called  the  "  Ameri- 

*  One  hand  =  four  inches. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


327 


can  Trotter,"  make  splendid  carriage  and  coach  horses. 
The  following  are  the  breeds  of  coach  horses: 

{German  Coach . Developed  in  Germany. 
French  Coach ..  Developed  in  France 
Hackney Developed  m  England. 
Cleveland  Bay .  Developed  in  England. 

German  Coach. — This  breed  Is  a  large  type  of  the 
coach  horse,  standing  16  to  i6]/2  hands  high.  The 
colors  are  bay,  black  and  brown. 

French  Coach. — This  breed  Is  not  quite  as  large,  but 
has  a  little  higher  action  than  the  German  Coach.  The 
colors  are  bay,  chestnut  and  black,  but  bays  are  most 
often  seen. 

Hackney. — The     Hackney     Is     smaller    and   more 


A    TYPICAL    ROADSTER. 


328  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

blocky  in  build  than  are  the  German  and  French  coach 
horses.  The  height  ranges  from  153/^  to  isH  hands. 
This  breed  has  splendid  constitution  and  endurance, 
combined  with  good  action.  Brown  and  chestnut  col- 
ors are  the  most  common;  black,  roan  and  sorrel  are 
sometimes  seen. 

Cleveland  Bay. — This  is  the  largest  but  least  stylish 
breed  of  coach  horse.  Horses  of  this  breed  are,  how- 
ever, very  strong.  The  color  is  always  bay  with  black 
legs,  mane  and  tail. 

3.  The  Roadster  or  Light  Harness  Type. — Horses 
of  this  type  have  been  bred  for  speed  and  stamina; 
that  is,  they  can  cover  distances  quickly  without  be- 
coming unduly  fatigued.  They  average  14.3  to  16 
hands  in  height,  and  weigh  from  900  to  1,150  pounds. 
They  are  more  slender  in  body  and  have  longer  legs 
than  the  coach  horse. 

The  following  are  the  breeds  of  Light  Horses : 

RrPP*1«:  of  T  iVht  {  Thoroughbred Developed  in  England. 

Ho^s  1  American  Trotter Developed  in  United  States. 

orses.         [^  American  Saddle  Horse.  Developed  in  United  States. 

Thoroughbred  or  Running  Horse. — A  long  time  ago 
race  horses  from  Arabia,  Turkey  and  Barbary  were 
imported  by  the  English,  and  crossed  with  their  light 
type  of  English  horse  to  produce  a  running  horse  which 
they  called  the  "  Thoroughbred."  This  breed  of 
horse  with  his  lithe  form,  long  nicely  arched  neck  and 
small  shapely  head,  together  with  long  well  defined 
legs  looks  every  inch  a  speedy  horse.  The  colors  are 
various,  although  bay,  sorrel  and  chestnut  with  white 
markings  are  most  often  seen.  A  Thoroughbred 
named  Salvator,  owned  at  Lexington,  Kentucky,  holds 
the  world  record  in  running  a  mile  in  one  minute, 
thirty-five  and  one-half  seconds. 

American  Trotter. — The  foundation  stock  of  the 
American  Trotter  was  the  Thoroughbred,  and  like 
that  horse  has  great  speed  and  endurance.  The  col- 
ors vary  as  they  do  with  the  Thoroughbred.    A  mare 


A   TYPICAL   AMERICAN   TROTTER. 


330 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


by  the  name  of  Lou  Dillon  trotted  a  mile  in  less  than 
two  minutes,  the  time  being  1.583/2. 

T'he  Pacer. — The  breeding  of  the  Pacer  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  American  Trotter,  the  difference  being 
in  the  gait,  for  when  a  horse  paces,  the  two  legs  on  one 
side  are  moved  at  the  same  time,  while  in  trotting  a 
front  leg  and  the  opposite  hind  leg  move  together. 


A   TYPICAL   SADDLE   HORSE. 


4.  The  American  Saddle  Horse. — In  the  early  his- 
tory of  Kentucky,  Virginia,  Tennessee  and  Missouri  the 
roads  were  poor,  making  travel  in  carriages  very  dif- 
ficult. As  a  result,  horseback  riding  was  a  favorite 
method  of  travel,  and  easy  gaited  horses  were  selected 
as  saddle  horses.  A  good  many  of  these  horses  were 
Thoroughbreds.  By  careful  selection  of  horses  with 
shapely  necks  and  heads,  splendid  bodies  and  legs,  com- 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


33^ 


SCORE   CARD   FOR  LIGHT  HORSES 


Age 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Weight 

Height 

Form,  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish 

Quality,  bone  clean,  fine,  yet  indicating  sufficient 
substance;  tendons  defined;  hair  and  skin  fine 

Temperament,  active,  good  disposition 

HEAD   AND    NECK: 

Head,  lean,  straight 

Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  and  not 
far  apart 

Neck,  muscled;  crest  high;  throatlatch  fine ;  wind- 
pipe large 

FOREQUARTERS: 

Shoulders,  long,  smooth  with  muscle,  oblique,  ex- 
tending into  back  and  muscled  at  withers .... 

Arm,  short,  thrown  forward 

Forearm,  muscled,  long,  wide 

Knees,  clean,  wide,  straight,  deep,  strongly  sup- 
ported   

Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews,  large,  set  back. . . 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight 

Pasterns,  strong,  angle  with  ground,  45  degrees 

Feet,  medium,  even  size,  straight;  horn  dense;  frog 
large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel 
wide,  high , 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the 
point  of  the  shoulders  should  fall  upon  the  center 
of  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  the 
side,  a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the  cen 
ter  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center 
of  the  knee  and  pastern  joint  and  back  of  hoof . . 
BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  low,  large  girth 

Ribs,  long,  well  sprung,  close 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad,  muscled 

Loin,  wide,  short,  thick 

Underline,  long;  flank  let  down 

HINDQUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide,  level 

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular,  not  drooping 

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 

Thighs,  long,  muscular,  spread,  open  angled 

Gaskins  or  Lower  Thighs,  long,  wide,  muscular. 

Hocks,  clearly  defined;  wide,  straight 

Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight 

Pasterns,  strong,  sloping ; . 

Feet,  medium,  even  size;  straight,  horn  dense;  frog 
large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide, 
high 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  cen- 
ter of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From 
the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide 
the  gaskin  in  the  middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  run  parallel 

with  the  line  of  the  cannon 

ACTION: 

Walk,  elastic,  quick,  balanced 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high 

Total 


Perfect 
Score 


Student's 
Score 


Corrected 
Score 


332 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


bined  with  ease  of  movement,  there  has  been  evolved 
the  present  breed  of  saddle  horse  which  Is  beautiful  to 
look  at  and  a  pleasure  to  ride.  As  Kentucky  has  been 
most  prominent  in  the  development  of  this  type  of 
horse  we  often  hear  the  name  "  Kentucky  Saddle 
Horse."  A  plain  gaited  saddle  horse  walks,  trots 
and  canters,  while  a  gaited  saddle  horse  must  go  five 
gaits,  namely:  walk,  trot,  canter,  rack  (sometimes 
called  single  foot),  and  either  the  running  walk,  slow 
pace  or  fox  trot. 

Shetland  Ponies. — The  Shetland  Islands  north  of 
England  are  the  home  of  the  Shetland  Pony.  The 
scant  vegetation  and  cold  climate  of  these  islands  are 
responsible  for  the  small  size  of  the  ponies  raised  there. 

Some  of  these  native 
ponies  are  not  more  than 
nine  hands  high.  In 
America,  where  food  is 
plentiful  and  the  climate 
not  so  severe,  they  grow 
larger  from  generation  to 
generation.  The  colors 
are  bay,  black,  chestnut, 
gray,  brown,  roan  and 
spotted.  The  Shetland 
Pony  has  a  gentle  dispo- 
sition, and  is,  therefore, 
popular  as  a  children's 
pet. 

Mules. — The  mule  is 
the  offspring  of  a  jackass, 
called  a  jack,  and  a  mare. 
In  other  words,  the  mule 
is  a  hybrid.  Mules  do  not 
breed  because  they  are 
sterile.  This  animal  is  a 
hardy,  easy  keeping,  steady  beast  of  burden.  It  is  pre- 
ferred to  the  horse  for  draft  purposes  in  some  sections 
of  the  country,  especially  in  the  South. 


TYPICAL   VIRGINIA   MULES. 


LIVE-STOCK  AND   DAIRYING.  333 

Exercise. — Name  the  classes  of  horses  prevalent  at  your  home. 
What  breeds  are  they?  Is  there  any  reason  why  these  breeds  pre- 
dominate? Which  can  stand  the  hot  southern  summers  better,  the 
mule  or  the  horse?  Do  horses  ever  sleep  standing?  What  position 
does  a  horse  assume  when  lying  down?  How  does  he  arise?  Which 
goes  to  sleep  earlier,  horses  or  cattle? 

The  teacher  should  require  the  pupils  to  score  draft  and  light 
horses. 


Section  LV. — Types  and  Breeds  of  Cattle. 

By  Prof.  E.  S.  Good, 
Department  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Kentucky  State  University. 

To  Great  Britain  belongs  the  credit  of  originating 
most  of  our  breeds  of  cattle.  To  a  large  degree  these 
breeds  have  been  developed  from  the  aboriginal  cattle 
of  that  country.  In  the  large  parks  and  forests  of  a 
few  of  the  estates  of  England  and  Scotland  can  be 


WILD  WHITE  CATTLE  OF  THE  PARK. 

seen  the  direct  descendants  of  these  aboriginal  cattle, 
which  are  called  the  "  Wild  White  Cattle  of  the  Park." 
These  have  been  left  to  run  wild  for  centuries,  but  have 
not  been  allowed  to  cross  with  any  other  cattle.  They 
are  kept  simply  as  objects  of  curiosity,  as  they  are  of 
little  value  for  beef,  and  of  no  value  for  milk. 

I.  Beef  Cattle. — As  the  word  "  beef"  implies,  this 
type  of  cattle  is  bred  principally  for  the  production  of 
meat.  The  beef  animal  should  have  a  straight,  broad 
top  line;  a  straight  bottom  line;  deep,  wide  body,  and 
short  legs. 

The  Score  Card. — To  judge  beef  cattle  one  must 
know  what  the  different  parts  of  the  animal  are  called, 


334 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


and  the  comparative  value  of  these  parts  as  shown 
by  the  score  card. 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  BEEF  CATTLE 


Perfect 
Score 


Student's 
Score 


Corrected 
Score 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Weight,  according  to  age 

Estimate lbs.     Actual lbs. 

Form,  straight  top  and  underline;  deep,  broad,  low 
set,  compact,  symmetrical 

Quality,  hair  fine;  bone  fine  but  strong;  skin  pli- 
able; mellow  even  covering  of  firm  flesh;  features 
refined  but  not  delicate 

Constitution,  chest  capacious;  brisket  well  devel- 
oped; flanks  deep;  bone  fine  but  strong 

Condition,  thrifty,  well  fleshed,  but  not  excessively 
fat;  deep  covering  of  firm  flesh 

Disposition,  quiet,  gentle 

Color,  and  markings,  according  to  breed 


HEAD   AND    NECK: 

Muzzle,  mouth  and  nostrils  large;  lips  thin 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

Face,  short,  quiet,  expressive 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 

Neck,  thick,  short;  throat  clean  according  to  breed 

FOREQUARTERS: 

Shoulder  Vein,  full 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh;  compact 

Brisket,  well  developed;  breast  wide 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 

Legs,  straight,  short,  set  well  apart;  arm  full;  bones 
smooth,  strong,  being  neither  too  coarse  nor  too 
fine 


BODY: 

Ribs,  long,  well-arched,  thickly  fleshed 

Crops,  full 

Back,  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed. . 

Loin,  thick,  broad 

Flank,  full,  even  with  underline 


HINDQUARTERS: 

Hips,  smoothly  covered;  width  in  proportion  with 

other  parts 

Rump,  long,   level,   wide  and  even  in  width;  not 

patchy   ("patchy,"  means  big  bunches  of  fat); 

tail-head  smooth 

Pin  Bones,  not  prominent,  width  in  proportion  with 

other  parts 

Thighs,  full,  fleshed  well  down  to  hock 

Legs,  straight,  short,  set  well  apart,  bones  smooth, 

being  neither  coarse  nor  too  fine 


Total. 


With  exception  of  form,  quality  and  constitution 
those  parts  of  the  beef  animal  receiving  the  highest 
counts  on  the  score  card  are  the  regions  of  the  best 


LIVE-STOCK  AND   DAIRYING. 


335 


TDP  yrtE. 


SHOWING  THE  BEEF  FORM  AND  THE  NAMES  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  PARTS  OF 
THE  BEEF  ANIMAL. 

cuts  of  meat.     Compare  score  card  with  figures  above 
and  below. 

The  accompanying  figure  shows  the  different  cuts  of 
meat  as  well  as  the  number  of  pounds  of  each  cut  that 
can  be  obtained  from  a  choice,  well  fattened  beef  ani- 
mal weighing  1,400  pounds;  also  the  price  per  pound 
for  which  they  would  retail  in  Chicago.  The  reason 
that  some  cuts  of  meat  are  more  valuable  than  others 
is  because  they  are  more  tender  and  juicy. 


(«Ecmc^fucK  ^PRtmoFfus^poRTiRHouszlsmLOKi  /ruhp 
fiTdcfVir/^  \rtsi^.   W^&P    flT^r  ^^^ 


plrte 

.     133LQ 

ilfij   flT^ 


>FLFini 
\S6LQi 
J\JS< 


ROUND 
nTLQS 
AT  16  <f 


CUTS   OF   MEAT   AND    WEIGHTS   OF   CUTS. 


DIAGRAM    SHOWING   MEAT   CUTS   ON   LIVE    ANIMAL. 


A    TWO-YEAR-OLD    SHORTHORN    BULL. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


337 


The  breeds  of  beef  cattle  are  as  follows 


Breeds  of 
Beef     - 
Cattle. 


'  Shorthorn Developed  in  England. 

Hereford Developed  in  England. 

Aberdeen  Angus.  .Developed  in  Scotland 

Galloway Developed  in  Scotland 

West  Highland . .  .  Developed  in  Scotland 

Devon Developed  in  England 

Sussex Developed  in  England 

Polled  Durham. .  .  Developed  in  United  States. 


Seldom  seen   in 
United  States. 


Shorthorn. — 7  his  breed  is  sometimes  called  "  Dur- 
ham."    The  Shorthorn  is  the  largest  of  any  of  the 


A   HEREFORD   COW. 


beef  breeds.  The  horns  are  short.  The  colors  are 
red  or  white,  or  those  two  colors  combined.  Some 
families  of  this  breed  give  large  quantities  of  milk. 

Hereford. — Herefords  are  sometimes  called 
"  White  Faces,"  as  they  have  red  bodies,  with  the  face, 
a  part  of  the  neck,  and  the  underline  white.  The 
Hereford  fattens  more  readily  on  grass  than  any  other 
breed  of  cattle,  hence  it  has  been  a  popular  breed  in 
our  Western  States. 


AN   ABERDEEN    ANGUS   COW. 


A    GALLOWAY. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


339 


Aberdeen  Angus. — This  is  a  very  popular  breed  of 
beef  cattle,  sometimes  called  "  Polled  Angus."  They 
are  more  rounding  in  form  than  other  breeds  of  beef 
cattle.    They  are  black  in  color  and  have  no  horns. 

Galloway. — The  Galloway  is  another  breed  of  beef 
cattle  without  horns.  The  hair  is  most  often  of  a 
brownish-black  color.  In  the  winter  time  the  Gallo- 
way has  two  coats  of  hair,  the  outer  coat  being  long 
and  wavy,  while  the  inner  coat  is  short,  abundant,  and 
soft  to  the  touch.  The  hides  of  some  Galloways  make 
good  robes. 

Polled  Durham. — These  cattle  are  either  pure  or 
nearly  pure-bred  Shorthorns  without  horns,  the  horns 
having  been  bred  off  through  the  laws  of  variation  and 
heredity. 

2.  Dairy  Cattle. — Instead  of  the  deep,  broad, 
smooth  rounded  outlines  of  the  beef  cow,  the  dairy 


CHAMPION    BULL — SHENSTONE   ALBINO. 


type  presents  one  of  curves  and  angles,  and  a  body  de- 
void of  natural  flesh,  for  the  dairy  cow  uses  her  food 
to  produce  milk  instead  of  beef.  The  form  of  the 
dairy  cow  is  usually  spoken  of  as  being  a  triple  wedge 
shape,  that  is,  in  viewing  the  cow  from  the  top  there 
is  an  increasing  width  from  the  withers  downward, 
making  the  first  wedge ;  viewing  the  cow  from  the  front, 


DURHAM   BULL,    TWO   YEARS   OF   AGE. 


DAIRY  TYPE — ALSO  SHOWING  THE   PARTS  OF  THE  DAIRY  COW. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING.  341 

there  is  an  increasing  width  of  body  toward  the  rear 
parts,  making  the  second  wedge;  viewing  the  cow  from 
the  side  there  is  an  increase  in  distance  between  the 
top  and  bottom  lines  as  they  go  towards  the  rear  of 
the  animal,  forming  the  third  wedge.  The  withers  of 
the  dairy  cow  should  be  sharp,  and  the  back  straight 
and  lean.  The  barrel  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  large, 
so  that  she  may  hold  large  quantities  of  feed  and  con- 
vert it  into  milk.  The  thighs  should  be  curved  in  as 
viewed  from  the  side,  and  they  should  also  be  flat. 
The  udder  is  not,  as  many  suppose,  a  reservoir  to  hold 
milk  until  it  is  milked  out,  but  is  made  up  of  tissue 

12  3  4  5 

TYPES  OF   UDDERS. 

I,  A  perfect  udder;  2,  as  a  perfect  udder  looks  when  milked  dry;  3,  udder  too  small; 

4,  undesirable  shape;  5,  an  udder  too  much  cut  up. 

having  a  great  many  tiny  cells  which  take  from  the 
blood  the  different  substances,  such  as  casein,  water, 
sugar  and  fat,  that  go  to  make  milk.  Some  of  the 
milk  is  produced  and  stored  in  the  udder  between  milk- 
ing times,  but  more  of  it  is  made  from  these  substances 
found  in  the  blood,  at  the  time  the  cow  is  being  milked. 
If  an  udder  is  made  up  of  the  best  kind  of  tissue  to 
produce  milk,  it  will  be  limp  when  milked  out,  instead 
of  looking  nearly  as  full  as  it  did  when  the  milking 
began. 

The  milk  veins  should  be  large,  for  that  indicates 
that  a  large  amount  of  blood,  from  which  the  milk  Is 
obtained,  goes  through  the  udder. 

Breeds  of  Dairy  Cattle: 

Jersey Developed  in  Jersey  Island       )  Located  between  Eng- 

Guernsey. .  .  .Developed  in  Guernsey  Island  i      land  and  France. 

Holstein Developed  in  Holland. 

Ayrshire Developed  in  Scotland. 

Dutch  Belted. Developed  in  Holland. 


342 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


SCORE   CARD   FOR   DAIRY   COWS 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Form,  inclined  to  be  wedge  shaped 

Quality,  hair  fine,  soft;  skin  mellow,  loose,  medium 

thickness;  bone  clean,  fine 

Temperament,  bright,  not  sluggish 

HEAD   AND    NECK: 

Muzzle,  clean  cut;  mouth  large;  nostrils  large. . . . 

Eves,  large,  bright,  full,  mild 

Face,  lean,  quiet  expression,  medium  length 

Forehead,  broad 

Ears,  medium  size,  yellow  inside,  fine  texture 

Horns,  fine  texture,  waxy 

Neck,  fine,  medium  length,  throat  clean,  light  dew- 
lap  

FOREQUARTERS: 

Withers,  lean,  thin 

Shoulders,  light,  oblique 

Legs,  straight,  short;  shank  fine 


Student's    Corrected 
Score      I      Score 


BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  low,  girth  large  with  full  fore  flank.. . 
Barrel,  ribs  broad,  long,  wide  apart;  large  stomach 

Back,  lean,  straight;  chine,  open  jointed 

Loin,  broad 

Navel,  large 

HINDQUARTERS: 

Hip  Bones,  far  apart,  level 

Rump,  long,  wide,  level 

Pin  Bones  or  Thurls,  high,  wide  apart 

Tail,  long,  slim;  fine  hair  in  switch 

Thighs,  thin,  long 

Escutcheon,  spreading  over  thighs,  extending  high 
and  wide 

Udder,  long,  attached  high  and  full  behind,  extend- 
ing far  in  front  and  full,  flexible;  quarters  even 
and  free  from  fleshiness 

Teats,  large,  evenly  placed 

Milk  Veins,  large,  long,  tortuous,  branched;  large 
and  numerous  milk  wells 

Legs,  straight,  shank  fine 

Total 


Jersey. — The  Jersey  cow  with  her  refinement  of 
form,  short,  crumpled  horn,  dished  face,  and  large 
eyes  is  the  most  beautiful  of  any  of  the  dairy  breeds. 
The  Jersey  is  noted  for  the  richness  of  her  milk.  The 
colors  most  commonly  seen  are  shades  of  gray  and 
fawn,  with  occasional  white  markings.  All  Jerseys,  and 
most  grade  Jerseys,  have  a  black  muzzle  with  a  light 
colored  band  of  hair  around  it.  A  Jersey  cow  named 
Jacoba  Irene  gave  17,253  pounds  of  milk  in  a  year, 
from  which  were  made  1,121  pounds  of  butter. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


343 


A    TYPICAL    JERSEY. 


Guernsey. — Guernseys  look  very  much  like  Jerseys, 
although  they  are  a  little  larger.  The  colors  are 
orange-fawn,  lemon-fawn,  and  reddish  yellow.     White 


HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN   COW.      COLANTHA   4TH  S  JOHANNA. 


344 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


markings  with  these  colors  are  common.     Guernseys 
also  give  large  quantities  of  milk,  rich  in  butter  fat. 

Holstein-Friesian — Cattle  of  this  breed  are  consid- 
erably larger  than  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys.  They 
are  black  and  white  in  color.  These  cattle  are  noted 
for  giving  large  quantities  of  milk,  but  it  is  not  as  rich 
in  butter  fat  as  is  that  of  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys. 
They  also  eat  larger  amounts  of  feed  than  the  two 
breeds  mentioned.     A  Holstein  cow  by  the  name  of 


AYRSHIRE    COW. 


Colantha  4th's  Johanna  gave  27,432  pounds  of  milk 
in  a  year,  which  produced  1,164  pounds  of  butter. 

Ayrshire. — This  is  a  very  hardy  breed  of  dairy  cat- 
tle, giving  large  quantities  of  milk  which  is  especially 
good  for  cheese-making.  The  colors  are  red  of  any 
shade,  brown  or  white.  A  good  many  cows  of  this 
breed  are  more  or  less  spotted.  The  horns  usually  in- 
cline upward. 

Dutch  Belted. — This  is  a  black  breed  of  cattle  with 
a  white  band  around  the  body. 

3.  Dual-Purpose  Cattle. — Cattle   of  this   class   are 


LIVE-STOCK  AND   DAIRYING.  345 

used  both  for  milk  and  beef,  and  their  form  should 
be  judged  from  both  the  dairy  and  beef  cattle  stand- 
points. 

Breeds  of  Dual- Purpose  J  Red  Polls Developed  in  England. 

Cattle.  I  Brown  Swiss. .  .  .Developed  in  Switzerland. 

Red  Polls. — This  breed  is  red  in  color  and  has  no 
horns. 

Brown  Swiss. — The  colors  of  this  breed  are  mostly 
shades  of  brown,  although  gray  colors  are  sometimes 
seen.  They  usually  have  a  light-colored  stripe  along 
the  back.  Some  families  of  the  Shorthorns  and  Polled 
Durhams  have  the  qualities  of  dual-purpose  cattle. 

Sell  Unprofitable  Cows. — Any  dairy  cow  to  be  profit- 
able should  produce  at  least  250  pounds  of  butter  in  a 
year.  The  only  way  to  weed  out  inferior  cows  from  a 
herd  of  dairy  cows  is  to  keep  a  record  of  the  milk  each 
cow  gives,  as  well  as  the  butter  fat  which  it  contains, 
selling  unprofitable  cows  to  the  butcher. 

Exercise. — Name  the  breeds  of  cattle  with  which  you  are  familiar. 
Which  type  of  cattle  is  the  more  common  in  your  neighborhood? 
Why  is  this  type  popular?  What  breed  of  cattle  predominates  in 
your  state?  Why?  What  season  of  the  year  do  the  people  at  your 
home  market  cattle?  Are  they  grass  fed  entirely?  What  price  do 
beef  cattle  sell  for?  Are  they  marketed  at  home  or  are  they  shipped 
away?  Do  you  live  in  a  dairy  state?  Are  there  any  farmers  in 
your  section  who  keep  a  strict  account  of  the  milk  and  butter  fat 
production  of  their  cows? 

The  pupil  should  be  required  to  know  the  name  and  location  of 
each  part  of  the  beef  and  dairy  animal ;  also  the  name  and  location 
of  each  cut  of  beef.  How  do  the  prices  of  the  different  cuts  of 
beef  on  the  Chicago  retail  market  compare  with  those  of  your 
local  butcher?  Should  the  dairy  cow  be  handled  gently?  Why? 
The  pupil  should  score  beef  and  dairy  animals. 


Section  LVI. — Types  and  Breeds  of  Sheep. 

By  Mr.  Joseph  E.  Wing, 
Staff  Correspondent  Breeders'  Gazette. 

History  of  Sheep. — For  more  centuries  than  written 
history  goes  back  sheep  have  been  the  companions  of 
men.     No  domestic  animal  has  been  more  changed  by 


346 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


man's  care  and  selection  than  the  sheep.  Doubtless 
the  first  wild  sheep  had  very  little  wool,  and  were  much 
stronger  and  more  active  animals  than  any  sheep  known 
to-day.  At  present  the  wild,  ancestral  type  has  en- 
tirely disappeared  from  the  earth,  and  were  man  to 


SHROPSHIRE    RAM. 


withdraw  his  fostering  care,  in  a  few  years  not  a  sin- 
gle survivor  would  remain  of  all  the  flocks  now  in  ex- 
istence. The  earliest  books  tell  of  sheep  and  their 
shepherds,  showing  that  the  dependent  nature  of  the 
animal  was  then  much  as  it  is  now.  As  was  said,  the 
sheep  to-day  is  a  much  changed  animal  from  his  proto- 
type. It  is  clothed  with  a  vast  amount  of  wool,  far 
more  than  is  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  it 
warm;  it  is  generally  almost  defenseless,  and  timid  to 
a  greater  degree  than  any  other  domestic  animal;  it  is 
gregarious,  loving  to  keep  in  flocks.  This  also  is  a 
habit  induced  by  long  familiarity  with  the  requirements 
of  men. 

Types  of  Sheep. — There  are  two  general  types  of 
sheep,  namely:  the  fine  wool  and  the  mutton.  The 
mutton  type  consists  of  the  middle  (or  medium)  wool 
and  long  wool  breeds.     The  fine  wool  type  may  be 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


347 


likened  to  the  dairy  cow,  and  the  mutton  type  resem- 
bles beef  cattle  in  general  make  up. 

The  following  are  the  common  breeds  of  sheep : 

r  American  Merino     1 
'  Wool  Type — Fine  Wool  ^  Rambouillet  Merino  >  Merinos 
Delaine  Merino         J 
vSouthdown       "j 
Hampshire         i 
Shropshire         j-  Downs 
Oxford  Down 
SufTolk  J 

Cotswold 

Lincoln  \-  Long  Wools 

Leicester 


Breeds  of 
Sheep 


Mutton. 
Type 


Medium  Wool< 


Long  Wool 


Merinos. — These  breeds  are  the  most  important  in 
the  world  to-day  in  point  of  numbers  and  yield  of  wool. 


A    FLOCK    OK    MERINO    RAMS. 


They  were  first  developed,  so  far  as  we  know,  in  Spain. 
Merinos  form  the  greater  proportion  of  the  flocks  of 
our  own  Western  States.  The  Merino  has  not  the 
smooth,  plump,  round  form  of  the  breeds  of  the  mut- 
ton type,  being  more  angular,  thin  and  ungainly.     On 


348  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

the  other  hand  Merinos  are  covered  with  wool  of  ex- 
ceeding fineness,  and  shear  very  heavy  fleeces.  From 
Merino  wools  are  made  all  the  finest  fabrics  in  use, 
especially  for  ladies  and  children.  While  Merinos  do 
not  look  so  plump  as  other  sheep,  yet  on  the  other  hand 
they  are  really  hardier  and  of  longer  life  than  any  of 
the  mutton  breeds. 


LINCOLN    RAMS. 


English  Breeds. — Of  the  English  breeds  there  are 
the  "  Downs,"  with  their  brown  or  black  faces  and 
legs;  the  Mountain  breeds;  and  the  Long  Wools  with 
white  faces  and  legs,  large  bodies  and  long  fleeces,  each 
one  adapted  to  its  own  particular  purpose  and  living  in 
its  particular  region.  Of  the  Downs  we  present  illus- 
tration of  a  flock  of  Southdown  ewes  on  pasture. 
Back  of  the  Hampshire  lambs  will  be  seen  a  peculiar 
fence  of  small  round  saplings,  the  so-called  "  hurdles  " 
of  England.  This  is  a  portable  system  of  fence,  and 
is  used  to  inclose  Hampshire  lambs  upon  small  bits  of 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


349 


SOUTHDOWN   EWES   ON    PASTURE. 


choice  herbage,  perhaps  of  clover  or  of  vetches,  or  of 
peas  and  oats,  or  of  turnips.  The  hurdles  being 
moved  daily  give  the  lambs  always  fresh,  rich  food, 
and  thus  they  fatten  rapidly,  and  often  at  the  age  of 
six  months  will  weigh  as  much  as  lOO  to  150  pounds. 


HAMPSHIRE   LAMBS    IN    HURDLES. 


35° 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Southdown. — The  Southdown,  well  illustrated  by  the 
group  of  ewes  at  pasture,  is  an  older  breed  than  the 
Hampshire.  The  illustration  shows  the  ewes  freshly 
shorn,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how  plump  and  round  are 
their  bodies.  Southdowns  have  brown  faces  and  legs, 
are  of  comparatively  small  size,  very  active,  hardy  and 
easily  fattened  sheep;  their  wool  is  short  but  of  high 
quality,  making  good  clothing.     It  is  customary  among 


PRIZE    PEN   OF   DORSET   EWES. 


all  sheep  men  to  say,  of  their  favorites,  "  As  good  as  a 
Southdown  ";  few  venture  to  claim  anything  better  in 
form  or  fattening  powers. 

Dorsets. — These  are  white-faced  sheep  belonging 
possibly  to  the  mountain  breeds,  being  more  strikingly 
white-faced  and  white-fleeced  than  almost  any  other 
breed,  even  their  noses  are  pink,  and  there  seems  to  be 
no  dark  pigment  about  them  whatever.  Their  native 
home  is  in  the  south  of  England,  where  centuries  ago 


LIVE-STOCK  AND   DAIRYING.  351 

they  were  kept  for  their  milk,  Dorsets,  unlike  most 
sheep,  have  horns,  both  ewes  and  rams,  the  rams  espe- 
cially having  magnificent  curling  horns.  It  is  probable 
that  at  one  time  all  sheep  were  horned,  since  it  must  have 
been  necessary  for  the  wild  sheep  to  be  able  to  defend 
their  lambs  from  foxes  and  wolves.  Dorsets  to-day  are 
esteemed  probably  for  the  production  of  early  lambs, 
since   their    hereditary    tendency   toward    milk-giving 


CHEVIOT   EWES. 


makes  them  nourish  their  lambs  well,  so  that  they  fatten 
at  a  very  early  age.  The  wool  of  the  Dorset  is  moder- 
ately short,  close,  fine  and  very  white.  It  makes  ex- 
ceedingly good  cloth  and  stocking  yarn. 

Cheviot. — Among  the  mountain  breeds  one  must 
certainly  place  the  Cheviot  in  front  rank  for  beauty  and 
use.  These  sheep,  well  illustrated  by  the  photograph, 
have  their  homes  in  the  hills  and  mountains.  They 
are  most  active,  energetic  and  enterprising  sheep ;  their 


352  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

fleeces  long  and  fairly  fine,  being  made  into  the  class 
of  goods  we  term  cheviots.  Their  mutton  also  is  first 
rate  and  is  prized  in  British  markets. 

Long  Wools. — Among  the  long-wooled  breeds  are 
the  Lincolns,  great  majestic  sheep,  as  large  as  some 
Southern  cows,  and  the  Cotswolds,  also  of  great  size 
with  beautiful  long  curling  fleeces  of  coarse  fiber;  and 
the  Leicesters.  These  three  breeds  are  not  as  good 
for  mutton  as  the  medium  wools. 

Value  of  Sheep. — Sheep,  besides  being  valuable  for 
their  mutton  and  their  wool,  make  the  land  always  rich 
and  better.  Sheep  destroy  weeds,  brush,  briers,  and 
cover  the  hills  with  grass  and  smooth  herbage. 

AVERAGE  WEIGHTS  OF   FLEECES  FROM   EWES 

American  Merino , 1 2-1 5  lbs. 

Rambouillet  Merino 10 

Delaine  Merino. 10-15 

Southdown 3-7 

Hampshire r. 7 

Shropshire .'■......   7-9 

Oxford  Down 7 

Suffolk .-, 9 

Dorset >t. .  .,. . . ,,. 6 

Cheviot ,..,......  5 

Cotswold 10 

Lincoln .  ■  1 5 

Leicester 9-1 1 

Exercise. — If  there  are  any  sheep  in  your  section,  find  out  the 
names  of  the  breeds.  Are  they  wool  breeds  or  mutton  breeds?.  If 
you  have  ever  seen  sheep  sheared,  prepare  yourself  to  explain  the 
process  to  the  rest  of  the  class. 


Section  LVII. — Types  and  Breeds  of  Swine. 

By  Prof.  C.  S.  Plumb, 
Department  of  Animal   Husbandry,  Ohio  State  University. 

Types. — Swine  may  be  divided  into  two  great 
classes,  the  lard  type  and  bacon  type. 

Lard  Type. — Our  American  breeds  of  swine  are 
mostly  of  the  lard  type.  Hogs  of  this  class,  in  good 
condition  or  fat,  have  very  broad,  level  backs;  smooth. 


LIVE-STOCK  AND   DAIRYING.  353 

thick  shoulders;  the  hind  quarter  of  the  body  thick  and 
the  hams  broad,  deep  and  thick.  The  lard  type  of  hog 
has  a  great  depth  of  body  and  the  legs  are  rather  short. 
The  best  specimens  have  rather  short  heads.  This 
lard  hog  when  fat  has  a  thick  layer  of  external  fat  over 
his  back,  hams,  sides  and  shoulders.  From  his  carcass 
the  packer  obtains  a  large  amount  of  lard. 

Bacon  Type. — The  bacon  type  of  swine  is  narrower 
of  back  than  the  lard  type;  has  thinner,  leaner  hams; 
is  not  so  deep  in  his  body;  has  a  smoother,  leaner 
shoulder  and  stands  on  longer  legs  than  does  the  other 
kind.  The  side  of  his  body  from  the  ham  to  the 
shoulder  is  long  and  smooth.  The  fat  bacon  type  is 
never  so  thickly  covered  with  fat  over  his  body  as  the 
lard  type,  but  his  carcass  contains  a  greater  proportion 
of  lean  meat.  The  bacon  of  the  hog  comes  from  strips 
of  meat  taken  from  the  sides,  and  the  best  bacon  has  a 
nice  mixture  of  fat  and  lean.  Large,  heavy,  very  fat 
bacon  comes  from  the  lard  type.  Bacon,  in  preference 
to  lard  hogs,  are  generally  produced  in  Europe.  In 
America  the  bacon  type  is  more  common  in  the  South 
than  the  North.  In  Chicago  stock  yards,  the  greatest 
hog  market  in  the  world,  the  lard  type  of  hogs  weigh 
from  225  to  350  pounds,  while  the  bacon  hogs  weigh 
nearer  150  to  175  pounds  live  weight. 

Breeds. — About  a  dozen  breeds  of  swine  are  known 
in  America,  but  only  five  of  them  are  important.  All 
other  breeds  in  this  country  are  kept  in  but  small  num- 
bers. 

The  Poland-China  is  one  of  our  most  noted  breeds. 
It  originated  in  the  United  States  in  Southwestern 
Ohio,  from  the  crossing  of  a  number  of  breeds  on 
the  native  stock,  in  the  first  half  of  the  last  century. 
This  breed  is  now  largely  black,  usually  with  a  little 
white  about  the  face,  on  the  legs  below  the  knees,  and 
on  the  tail.  The  head  has  what  is  called  a  straight 
face.  The  ears  should  break  or  lop  over  in  front  for 
about  two-thirds  of  their  length,  and  should  be  fine  and 
small  to  medium  size.     The  Poland-China  fattens  very 


354 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


readily  and  has  a  wide  back  and  thick,  full  hams.  It 
is  a  breed  that  is  well  suited  to  the  corn-growing  sec- 
tions and  will  mature  rapidly.  It  does  not  produce 
as  large  litters  as  most  other  breeds,  which  in  recent 
years  has  caused  it  to  become  unpopular  with  some 
people.  The  Poland-China  belongs  to  the  lard  type 
and   easily   fattens   in   eight   months   to    250   pounds. 


A  FINE  POLAND-CHINA  BOAR,  BRED  IN  OHIO.      THE  LARD  TYPE,  VERY  FAT. 
(Photograph  by  C.  S.  Plumb.) 

Boars  of  this  breed  frequently  weigh  up  to  600  pounds 
and  more,  and  sows  400. 

The  Duroc-Jersey  is  another  American  breed  which 
originated  in  New  York  State.  This  is  a  red  or  sandy 
colored  breed,  with  a  straight  face  and  lopped  ear. 
The  Duroc-Jersey  in  recent  years  has  become  popular 
and  is  attracting  much  attention.  Pigs  of  this  breed 
have  broad  backs,  well-developed  hams,  and  are  good 
feeders,  and  weigh  a  little  heavier  than  the  Poland- 
China.  The  sows  are  quite  productive  of  young,  which 
has  added  to  the  popularity  of  the  Duroc-Jersey.     The 


CEDAR  VALE  QUEEN  VII — A    PRIZE-WINNING    DUROC-JERSEY   SOW.     THE 

LARD    TYPE. 

{Photograph  by  C.  S.  Plumb.) 


CHESTER    WHITE    BOAR. 
(Photograph  by  C.  S.  Plumb.) 


3S6 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


breed  is  getting  common  in  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Iowa,  Nebraska  and  Missouri. 

The  Chester  JVhite  is  still  another  American  breed, 
originating  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  It  is  white  in 
color  of  skin  and  hair,  and  small  black  spots  sometimes 
occur  in  the  skin.  The  head  is  straight  and  the  ear 
lopped  over  much  like  the  Poland-China.  The  back 
and  hams  are  well  developed,  for  this  breed  belongs 
to  the  lard  type.  The  Chester  White  fattens  easily, 
and  the  sows  produce  good-sized  litters.  The  weight 
of  the  boars  is  about  600  pounds,  and  sows  450  pounds. 
In  warm,  dry  summer  climates,  hogs  of  this  breed  tend 
to  sun  scald,  so  that  for  this  reason  it  lacks  the  popu- 
larity of  the  black  breeds.  Chester  Whites  are  fairly 
common  in  the  Northern  United  States  east  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River. 

The  Berkshire  is  a  breed  that  originated  long  ago 
in  Berkshire  county.  Southern  England.      It  is  black  in 


FIRST  PRIZE  YEARLING  BERKSHIRE. 

Bred  and  owned  by  Ohio  State  University. 

{Photograph  by  C.  S.  Plumb.) 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


357 


A   LARGE    YORKSHIRE. 
Owned  by  Ohio  State  University. 


color,  but  with  six  white  markings,  viz. :  on  the  face,  on 
the  four  feet  below  the  knees,  and  the  tail.  Sometimes 
a  bit  of  white  occurs  elsewhere,  especially  about  the 
jaw  or  forearm.  The  head  should  be  short,  and  the 
face  curved  upward  or  "  dished,"  and  the  ears  erect, 
although  with  age  the  ears  tend  to  lean  forward.  The 
Berkshire  does  not  usually  get  quite  so  thick  and  fat 
as  the  breeds  above  described,  but  it  produces  the  fin- 
est pork.  Berkshires  mature  medium  well  and  pro- 
duce good  litters.  This  breed  is  kept  all  over  the 
United  States,  and  is  better  known  in  the  South  than 
any  other  breed,  where  it  is  quite  popular.  This  is 
either  a  lard  or  bacon  type,  as  it  may  be  fed. 

The  Large  Yorkshire  is  a  strictly  bacon  type  of 
swine  that  has  been  bred  for  centuries  in  England, 
where  it  is  known  as  the  "  Large  White."  It  is  pure 
white  in  color,  and  has  a  rather  long  head  and  slightly 
curved  face,  with  the  ears  carried  more  or  less  upright. 
This  breed  has  a  narrow  back,  not  very  thick  hams,  and 
a  long  body  and  side  of  meat.     The  legs  seem  long  to 


3S8  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Americans,  in  fact,  the  breed  is  more  upstanding  than 
the  other  breeds  described.  Large  Yorkshires  do  not 
mature  as  rapidly  as  our  native  breeds,  but  they  attain 
great  size,  the  boars  reaching  i,ooo  pounds  or  more. 
The  sows  are  productive  and  raise  large  litters.  This 
is  the  one  great  bacon  breed  of  Great  Britain  and  Den- 
mark, and  is  popular  with  farmers  in  Canada  and  some 
other  sections,  who  want  to  cross  with  the  lard  type  or 
who  want  more  of  a  bacon  hog  than  the  natives. 

The  Thin  Rind,  also  called  Hampshire,  is  a  black 
breed  with  a  white  band  around  the  body.  It  is  some- 
what of  the  bacon  type,  and  originated  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  had  a  special  development  in  Kentucky, 
Indiana  and  Illinois.  It  is  quite  well  suited  to  the 
Southern  States.  Boars  sometimes  weigh  up  to  500 
pounds  and  sows  300  pounds. 

The  Tamworth  is  a  large  reddish  or  sandy  breed 
from  England.  It  is  a  long-nosed,  long-bodied,  long- 
headed breed,  and  is  especially  valued  for  bacon.  Boars 
may  reach  1,000  pounds  in  weight.  It  has  not  met 
with  much  favor  in  America,  is  not  the  type  of  feeder 
Americans  want,  and  matures  too  slowly. 

Other  Breeds. — The  Essex,  Small  Yorkshire,  Chesh- 
ire, Victoria  and  The  Mule  Footed,  are  other  breeds 
of  swine  that  are  raised.  These  breeds  are  not  popu- 
lar, and  are  not  generally  grown. 

Exercise. — Name  the  breeds  of  swine  that  you  have  seen.  State 
their  types.  What  breeds  of  swine  are  bred  and  grown  in  your  com- 
munity? What  price  do  hogs  bring  on  your  market?  Ask  your  folks 
if  they  make  any  money  in  raising  hogs. 

If  there  is  a  large  hog  farm  in  your  section,  take  the  class  out 
to  it  and  make  them  name  the  types  and  breeds.  Write  to  your 
Experiment  Station  for  a  score  card  and  have  the  pupils  score  a 
hog. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND    DAIRYING.  359 

Section  LVIII  (a). — Poultry. 

By  Prof.  D.  J.  Lambert, 
Department  of  Poultry  Husbandry,  Rhode  Island  State  College. 

Importance  of  Poultry. — I'he  poultry  Industry  is 
much  more  Important  than  Is  generally  supposed.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Secretary  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  eggs  and  poultry  produced  on  the 
farms  of  the  United  States  for  the  year  1908,  were 
worth  as  much  as  the  cotton  crop,  seed  included,  or  the 
hay  crop,  or  the  wheat  crop. 

Breeds,  Classes  and  Varieties. — There  are  fifty-five 
different  breeds  of  poultry  recognized  by  the  American 
Poultry  Association  as  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  Stand- 
ard of  Perfection.  This  book  contains  a  complete  de- 
scription of  all  of  these  breeds,  and  Is  revised  every 
five  years  to  make  changes  and  admit  worthy  new- 
comers. The  fifty-five  breeds  are  divided  Into  four- 
teen classes.  Each  class  has  Individual  characteristics 
peculiar  to  the  family  to  which  they  belong.  Some 
classes  contain  but  one  breed,  while  others  have  several. 
Of  some  breeds  there  is  only  one  variety,  while  others 
have  from  two  to  eight.  There  are  one  hundred  and 
and  twenty-eight  standard  varieties,  including  fowls, 
ducks,  geese  and  turkeys. 

Classes. — The  following  are  the  classes,  i.  Ameri- 
can. 2.  Asiatic.  3.  Mediterranean.  4.  English. 
5.  Polish.  6.  Hamburg  (Dutch).  7.  French.  8. 
Games  and  Game  Bantams.  9.  Oriental  Game  and 
Bantam  Class.  10.  Ornamental  Bantam  Class.  11. 
Miscellaneous.  12.  Turkey  Class.  13.  Duck  Class. 
14.  Goose  Class. 

Types  of  Chickens. — The  first  eleven  classes  may  be 
further  divided  into  four  types,  namely:  The  General 
Purpose  Type,  The  Meat  Type,  The  Egg  Type  and 
The  Ornamental  Type. 

The  General  Purpose  Type  is  the  medium  size,  busi- 
ness-like hen,  originally  a  cross  between  the  egg  and 


360  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

the  meat  type.  In  this  class  we  have  as  good  layers 
as  is  possible  to  obtain,  and  retain  the  meat-producing 
qualities.  This  type  finds  favor  with  the  farmer  and 
suburban  poultry  keeper,  as  well  as  the  fancier  on  ac- 
count of  their  popularity.  The  American  Class,  Or- 
pingtons and  Houdans  are  of  this  type. 

The  Meat  Type  includes  the  large  size,  full-breasted 
and  yellow  fleshed  birds,  such  as  are  of  quiet  disposi- 
tions, easily  confined  in  yards.  They  fatten  at  an  early 
age  for  broilers,  and  being  tame  and  inactive  they  re- 
main soft,  tender,  fine-grained  and  palatable  until  one 
year  old  for  large  roasters.  The  largest  meat  type 
have  short  feathered  shanks  and  roam  around  but  lit- 
tle. The  Asiatics,  Dorkings  and  Indian  Games  belong 
to  this  type. 

The  Egg  Type  includes  the  medium  size  breeds  with 
active  dispositions,  usually  high  flyers,  non-sitters,  and 
not  prone  to  take  on  fat  or  flesh  easily.  An  over  size 
bird  is  invariably  a  poor  layer.  All  egg  type  fowls 
have  smooth  shanks,  free  from  feathers,  a  bright  eye, 
red  comb  and  a  medium  long,  wedge-shaped  body. 
Mediterraneans,  Hamburgs  and  Red  Caps  are  of  this 
type. 

The  Ornamental  Type  are  birds  bred  for  show  pur- 
poses, pets  or  hobbies.  They  possess  brilliant  mark- 
ings, attractive  appearance,  gorgeous  crests  or  fine 
feathers.  Their  value  is  assessed  on  account  of  their 
beauty,  rather  than  the  number  of  eggs  they  will  lay, 
or  pounds  of  flesh  they  produce.  In  this  class  is  in- 
cluded those  prized  for  their  oddity  or  smallness,  such 
as  Polish,  Bantam  and  remaining  classes. 

The  American  Class  includes  the  Plymouth  Rocks, 
Wyandottes,  Javas,  Dominiques,  Rhode  Island  Reds 
and  Buckeyes.  All  of  these  breeds  are  of  American 
origin.  The  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes  and  Rhode 
Island  Reds  are  the  most  important  breeds  of  this  class. 
The  Plymouth  Rock  breed  is  the  most  popular,  being 
the  first  of  American  origin.  Males  over  one  year  old 
are  termed  cocks,  and  should  weigh  95^  pounds.     Fe- 


BARRED   PLYMOUTH   ROCK. 


LIGHT   BRAHMA,  A   MEAT   TYPE. 


BUFF   LEGHORNS,    EGG   TYPE. 


A   PAIR   OF   WHITE   WYANDOTTES.  WHITE   PLYMOUTH   ROCKS. 


362 


FUNDAMENTALS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


males  more  than  one  year  old  are  termed  hens,  and 
should  weigh  7^  pounds.     Males  less  than  one  year 


SYMntTRt— • 

WDOHT  — ••» 

»..  COtlftlTWH — 1 

:\ -COMB  — e 

'"./beak  — nCSSi 
"cYts— m(S:S 

vttmpjtNsiMs- Htrs 

"■■•...  ■••HECK— ears 

■•-.,  """3ACK "(i^ 

"■"BRIAST— ll{^ 

."^  BOB'f  &  nuf  f—  6{  Jn? 

■••."."•WINQi—  ^"XS, 

,^  ,      "'•TAIL — i<>(s::s  . 
53s&>»Lni5&Tot&-  *{i:sU 

155 


DIAGRAM   SHOWING   SCORE  CARD   FOR   POULTRY. 

old  are  termed  cockerels,  and  should  weigh  8  pounds. 
Females  less  than  one  year  old  are  termed  pullets,  and 
should  weigh  6  pounds  at  six  months  of  age,  and  begin 
to  lay  when  65^  months  old.  The  weights  in  the 
American  class  are:  cocks  8^-9^  pounds,  hens  6-73/2, 
cockerels  7-8,  pullets  5-6. 


PAIR   OF   LIGHT   BRAHMAS. 


SINGLE-COMB  WHITE  LEGHORN  COCK. 


The  Asiatic  Class  comprises  the  Light  and  Dark 
Brahmas,  Cochins  and  Langshans.  All  breeds  of  this 
class  have  feathers  on  shanks  and  feet.     They  are  of 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


3^3 


the  meat  type,  and  make  excellent  sitters  and  mothers. 
Weights:  cocks  11-12  pounds,  hens  8^-93^,  cockerels 
9-10,  pullets  7-8. 

The  Mediterranean  Class  consists  of  the  Leghorns, 
Minorcas,  White-faced  Black  Spanish,  Andalusians 
and  Anconas.  The  breeds  of  this  class  lay  chalk  white 
eggs,  while  other  classes  usually  lay  tinted-shelled  eggs. 
The  Leghorns  are  great  layers,  and  are  often  called 
egg  machines,  but  are  too  small  to  be  of  value  for 
meat.     The  breeds  of  this  class  are  non-sitters. 

The  English  Class  contains  the  Dorkings,  Red  Caps, 
and  Orpingtons.     The  Dorkings  are  the  oldest  breed 


A   PAIR   OF   SINGLE-COMB   WHITE 
LEGHORNS. 


PAIR   OF    BUFF   ORPINGTONS. 


in  this  class,  and  they  have  five  toes  on  each  foot,  long 
bodies  and  abundant  white  breast  meat.  The  Orping- 
tons are  the  most  popular  English  breed.  Weights: 
cocks  7^-10  pounds,  hens  6-8,  cockerels  6-83^,  pullets 

5-7- 

The  Polish  Class  includes  one  breed  of  which  there 

are  eight  varieties.     The  Polish  are  strictly  ornamental 

fowls,  of  little  value  for  meat  and  only  fair  layers. 

Much  value  is  placed  on  the   development  of  their 

crests. 

The  Hamhurgs  or  Dutch  are  an  old  breed,  and  the 
pencilled  varieties  of  this  family  are  among  the  finest 
plumed  birds  in  the  Standard.     They  are  good  layers. 

The  French  Class  consists  of  the  Houdans,  Creve- 


364  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

coeurs,  La  Fleche  and  Faverolles.  The  Houdans  and 
Crevecoeurs  have  crests  and  small  V-shaped  combs. 

Games  and  Game  Bantams  are  the  aristocrats  of  the 
poultry  yard.  There  are  eight  varieties,  and  they  are 
prized  as  pets  and  for  exhibition. 

Oriental  Game  and  Bantam  Class. — Some  of  the  va- 
rieties of  this  class  are  good  meat-producing  breeds. 

The  Ornamental  Bantam  Class  are  prized  for  their 
smallness,  and  disqualified  if  they  weigh  four  ounces 
or  more  over  standard  weight.  There  are  many  va- 
rieties. 

The  Miscellaneous  Class  contains  the  White  Silkies ; 
their  feathers  being  webless  and  of  a  silky  nature. 
The  White  Sultans,  with  abundant  stiff  leg  and  toe 
feathering.  The  Frizzles,  whose  feathers  have  a  ten- 
dency to  turn  backwards  and  curl  upwards. 

The  Turkey  Class  is  made  up  by  the  Mammoth 
Bronze,  Narragansett,  Buff,  Slate,  White  and  Black. 
Weights:  cocks  27-36  pounds,  cockerels  18-25,  hens 
18-20,  pullets  12-16. 

The  Duck  C  las  J  IS  comprised  of  ten  breeds:  Pekins, 
Aylesburys,  Rouens,  Cayugas,  Gray  and  White  Calls, 
East  Indias,  White  Crested  Colored  and  White  Mus- 
covys,  Indian  Runners  and  Blue  Swedish.  The  Ayles- 
burys and  Rouens  are  the  largest  and  should  weigh: 
drake  9  pounds,  young  drake  8,  adult  duck  8,  young 
duck  7.  The  Gray  and  White  Calls  are  prized  for 
small  size,  the  smaller  the  better. 

The  Goose  Class  contains  six  breeds  and  seven  va- 
rieties: Toulouse,  Embden,  African,  Chinese,  Wild  or 
Canadian  and  Egyptian.  Weights:  adult  gander  10- 
20  pounds,  young  gander  8-18,  adult  goose  8-18,  young 
goose  6-16.  The  Toulouse,  Embden  and  African 
make  up  the  heaviest  breeds,  and  the  other  three  breeds 
weigh  only  about  half  as  much. 

Artificial  Incubation. — Incubators  are  used  a  great 
deal  by  poultrymen  because  it  is  cheaper  to  hatch  eggs 
in  this  way.  Chickens  can  be  better  cared  for  in  brood- 
ers, and  the  hens  begin  laying  sooner. 


LIVE-STOCK    AND    DAIRYING. 


365 


A    MODEL    INCUBATOR. 

Exercise. — Make  a  list  of  the  varieties  of  poultry  in  your  section. 
Arrange  them  as  to  breeds,  classes  and  types.  What  type  is  most 
prevalent?  Why?  What  is  an  egg  type?  What  is  a  meat  type? 
What  is  a  general-purpose  type?  What  is  an  ornamental  type? 
Name  the  breeds  and  varieties  in  the  American  class,  the  Asiatic 
class,  the  English  class,  the  Mediterranean  class. 


Section  LVIII   (b). — Poultry  Houses  and  Care 
'  ,  OF  Poultry. 

By  J.  E.  Halligan, 
Louisiana  State  Experiment  Station.  '  '  , 


Methods  of  Housing. — There  are  two  methods  of 
housing  poultry,  namely:  the  colony  system  and  the 
apartment  or  continuous  house  system. 

The  colony  system  consists  of  housing  a  few  fowls 
in  small,  usually  portable,  houses,  where  they  have  free 


366  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

range,  and  far  enough  apart  so  that  there  Is  no  min- 
gling of  the  flocks.  The  advantages  of  the  colony  sys- 
tem are: 

1.  There  Is  less  danger  from  outbreaks  of  disease. 

2.  No  fencing  Is  required. 

3.  Fowls  get  more  exercise  than  In  yards. 

4.  By  moving  the  houses  once  In  a  while,  clean 
ground  may  be  provided. 

5.  Less  feed  Is  required  to  be  furnished  during  the 
summer  months. 

6.  Many  Injurious  insects  are  eaten  up. 

7.  Fowls  may  be  put  on  harvested  fields  and  fit  into 
crop  rotations. 

The  chief  disadvantages  of  the  colony  system  are : 

1.  It  Is  diflicult  to  care  for  and  feed  fowls  in  colony 
houses  during  the  winter  or  severe  weather. 

2.  More  land  Is  required;  under  this  system  it  is 
only  possible  to  allow  100  birds  per  acre,  while  in  the 
apartment  system,  with  properly  constructed  yards, 
400  to  500  birds  may  be  kept  per  acre. 

3.  The  cost  of  colony  houses  Is  greater  than  the 
continuous  house  of  equal  capacity,  because  this  latter 
house  only  requires  wooden  partitions  at  the  ends,  and 
the  Interior  partitions  may  be  made  of  wire  netting. 

The  colony  houses  are  usually  built  to  accommodate 
ten  to  thirty  birds. 

The  apartment  or  continuous  house  consists  of  a 
series  of  separate  pens  in  one  building,  generally  with  a 
passage  way  through  the  entire  building  which  has 
openings  Into  every  pen. 

Where  to  Build  and  JVhy. — In  building  a  poultry 
house  a  suitable  location  should  be  selected.  A  well- 
drained  sandy  loam  soil  is  preferable  to  a  clay  or 
sandy  soil.  The  soil  should  be  rich  enough  to  grow 
the  necessary  green  crops  desired  for  summer  feeding. 
If  possible  the  location  should  be  such  as  to  afford  pro- 
tection from  winds  and  storms.  Such  a  spot  is  offered 
behind  farm  buildings  or  on  a  slope  of  a  hill. 

The  buildings  should  have  a  southern  or  southeast- 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING.  367 

ern  exposure,  as  the  birds  prefer  the  morning  sun,  and 
to  keep  the  house  warm  and  dry. 

The  fowls  are  housed  principally  to  protect  them 
from  the  cold  winds  and  storms,  so  as  to  keep  up  the 
egg  production.  Exceedingly  warm  houses  are  not 
necessary  for  poultry  as  has  been  proved  by  experi- 
ments. The  house  should  be  built  to  maintain  as  even 
a  temperature  as  possible  during  night  and  day.  The 
double  walled  houses  are  hard  to  keep  dry  or  warm 
without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat,  which  is  not  always 
satisfactory.  The  temperature  in  houses  built  mostly 
of  glass  is  difficult  to  regulate,  because  it  is  so  much 
colder  during  the  night  than  in  the  day. 

Requirements. — The  building  should  be  large 
enough  to  accommodate  the  number  of  fowls  on  the 
farm.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  not  more  than 
forty  fowls  should  be  kept  together,  and  4^  to  5 
square  feet  of  floor  space  should  be  allowed  per  bird. 
For  smaller  flocks  more  floor  space  per  bird  will  be 
required.  In  sections  where  severe  weather  is  encoun- 
tered only  occasionally,  and  the  birds  are  not  continu- 
ally housed,  about  two  to  three  square  feet  of  floor 
space  may  be  assigned  per  bird.  Birds  should  not  be 
crowded,  for  it  will  interfere  with  their  exercise.  The 
building  should  be  high  enough  to  permit  the  entrance 
of  attendants. 

Windows. — The  windows  should  be  placed  high  so 
that  the  winter  sunlight  will  reach  every  part  of  the 
house.  Wide  buildings  or  low  windows  prevent  the 
sunlight  from  reaching  the  rear  parts,  and  often  cause 
dampness  which  is  very  objectionable  in  a  poultry 
house.  For  sixteen  feet  of  floor  space  one  square 
foot  of  glass  should  be  allowed. 

Floor. — It  should  be  the  aim  of  every  poultryman 
to  keep  the  floor  perfectly  dry.  Wood,  earth  or 
cement  are  used  for  floors.  Cement  makes  the  best 
floor.  Every  farmer  can  afford  such  a  floor,  as  it  can 
be  made  with  farm  labor  and  at  little  cost.  Cement 
floors    have    many    advantages.      They    are    readily 


368 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


cleaned,  they  are  durable,  and  they  are  easily  con- 
structed. A  floor  2  to  3  inches  thick  is  strong  enough 
for  a  poultry  house. 

Wooden  floors  are  apt  to  rot  quickly  unless  a  free 
circulation  of  air  is  allowed  under  them.  This  can 
be  provided  by  making  openings  on  the  outside  walls 
of  the  house.  Rats  are  liable  to  prove  troublesome 
when  wooden  floors  are  used  unless  extra  precautions 
are  taken.     A  layer  of  j/2  an  inch  of  fine  dry  sand  cov- 


END  ELEVATION   (iNSIDE)   OF   LATEST  CURTAIN-FRONT  POULTRY  HOUSE. 

ered  with  a  litter  of  straw  makes  a  good  surface  for  a 
wooden  floor. 

Earth  floors  are  excellent  when  the  building  is  first 
occupied,  but  they  soon  become  damp  and  uncleanly. 
Earth  floors  should  be  a  few  inches  higher  than  the 
outside  surface  of  the  ground.  In  cleaning  earth 
floors  it  is  necessary  to  shave  off  the  upper  surface  and 
replace  it  with  fresh  dry  earth.  At  best  it  is  diflficult 
to  keep  an  earth  floor  dry  and  clean. 

Ventilation. — Good  ventilation  is  one  of  the  main 
requirements  of  a  poultry  house.  Fowls  require  more 
fresh  air  than  other  farm  animals  because  of  their 
great  activity.     The  house  should  be  built  tight  enough 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


369 


to  prevent  direct  drafts  from  blowing  on  the  birds,  but 
openings  should  be  left  at  intervals  along  the  top  of 
the  south  side  of  the  wall  of  the  house  between  the 
windows,  to  permit  of  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  air. 


FLOOR  PLAN  AND  FRONT  ELEVATION  OF  SECTION    OF    LATEST  CURTAIN- 
FRONT  POULTRY   HOUSE. 
a.  Feed  trough  for  dry  mash;  b,  feed  trough  for  grit,  bone,  etc.;  c,  trap  nest;  d,  coop 
for  broody  hens;  e,  front  curtain;  /,  roosting  closet  curtain;  g,  roost  bars;  h,  small 
closet  in  which  eggs  taken  from  nest  are  placed 


370  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

On  severe  cold  or  stormy  nights  these  openings  may 
be  partially  closed  with  curtains  of  duck,  muslin,  bur- 
lap or  other  suitable  material. 

Roosts. — A  tight  roost  platform,  made  of  smooth 
boards,  should  be  built  about  3  feet  from  the  floor  to 
catch  the  droppings,  to  allow  an  attendant  to  get  under 
It  to  catch  the  birds  when  necessary  and  to  retain  the 
floor  area.  The  roosts  should  be  from  8  to  12  inches 
above  the  platform,  i  foot  from  the  wall,  and  hinged 
to  the  wall  so  that  they  may  be  swung  out  of  the  way 
when  the  platform  is  being  cleaned.  If  more  than  one 
roost  Is  desired,  a  distance  of  15  inches  should  be  al- 
lowed between  the  roosts.  Three  or  four  roosts  may 
be  conveniently  joined  together  and  fastened,  the  same 
as  mentioned  for  one  roost. 

The  roosts  may  be  made  of  2  by  3  Inch  lumber  placed 
edgewise  and  rounded  off  at  the  top.  A  space  of  8  to 
10  Inches  should  be  allowed  for  each  bird. 

The  roosting  place  should  be  furnished  with  a  cur- 
tain of  duck  or  muslin,  to  provide  a  warm  sheltered 
closet  for  the  fowls  at  night.  This  curtain  should  be 
hinged  at  the  top  and  hung  to  the  celling  during  the 
day. 

Nests. — The  nests  should  be  placed  with  the  en- 
trance towards  the  wall  so  as  to  keep  It  dark.  Hens 
are  not  so  apt  to  eat  eggs  In  a  dark  nest.  The  nests 
should  be  about  i  foot  wide,  i  foot  high  and  i  foot 
long,  with  partitions  high  enough  between  them  to  pre- 
vent the  eggs  from  rolling  out,  and  low  enough  so  that 
the  hens  may  go  from  nest  to  nest.  Hinged  covers  In 
front  of  the  nests  are  convenient  for  removing  the  eggs. 
The  nests  should  be  so  constructed  that  they  may  be 
removed  easily  when  it  Is  necessary  to  clean  them. 
Straw  makes  excellent  nest  material. 

Feed  Trough. — In  building  a  feed  trough  it  Is  neces- 
sary to  construct  It  so  that  the  birds  cannot  get  Into  It 
with  their  feet  and  spoil  the  feed.  The  Maine  Experi- 
ment Station*  uses  a  trough  with  slatted  sides,  and  a 

*  Farmers'  Bui.  357. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


371 


broad  removable  roof  which  gives  satisfaction.  The 
troughs  are  from  6  to  10  feet  long  with  sides  5  inches 
high.      The    lath 


slats  are  put  2 
inches  apart,  and 
the  trough  is  16 
inches  high  from 
the  floor  to  the 
roof.  The  roof 
projects  2  inches  on 


4 


■Mil 


CHICKEN   FEEDING   TROUGH,  ACCESSIBLE 
FROM  BOTH  SIDES,  WITH  COVER  ON. 


CHICKEN   FEEDING   TROUGH    WITH   COVER   REMOVED. 

either  side,  and  protects  the  food  from  rain  except  dur- 
ing very  windy  weather. 

Water  Supply. — Poultry  should  be  supplied  with 
fresh  water  every  day.  The  drinking  vessels  should 
be  thoroughly  cleansed  whenever  necessary,  and  placed 
in  some  protected  place  a  few  inches  about  the  floor 
to  keep  out  the  dirt. 

Yards. — Most  poultry  yards  are  on  the  south  side 
of  the  building,  because  protection  is  offered  from  the 
cold  winds  of  the  fall  and  early  spring,  and  the  south 
side  is  always  dry  earlier  in  the  spring.  Sometimes 
yards  are  built  on  the  north  and  south  sides.  It  is  well 
to  have  more  than  one  yard,  because  green  feed  can  be 
continually  supplied  by  changing  the  fowls  from  one 
yard  to  another.  Clover,  grasses,  rye,  oats,  etc.,  may 
be  sown  in  the  poultry  yards  to  furnish  the  green  feed. 
It  requires  about  75  square  feet  of  green  sod  per  bird, 
and  if  the  yard  area  is  inadequate  green  feed  should 


372 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


be  supplied  to  make  up  for  the  deficiency.  Sometimes 
yards  are  used  simply  for  exercising  the  birds,  in  which 
case  the  yard  area  may  be  reduced  one-half. 

Fences  of  wire  netting  of  about  2  inch  mesh  are  de- 
sirable. A  foot  or  base  board  about  2  to  3  feet  high 
should  be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  fences  to  prevent 
the  male  birds  from  fighting.     The  fences  should  be 


'a^»?'a--^"=^^^^^^-S'<fiife:^SSS,;s;^SKH^^^Ss- 


THE   LATEST  CURTAIN-FRONT   POULTRY   HOUSE. 


high  enough  to  prevent  the  birds  from  flying  over. 
The  light  breeds,  as  Leghorn,  require  a  fence  10  to  12 
feet  high,  and  4  to  6  feet  is  high  enough  for  heavy 
breeds  like  the  Brahmas.  Gates  should  be  built  so 
as  to  allow  access  to  all  the  yards. 

The  yards  should  be  well  drained  and  kept  clean. 
Fresh  drinking  water  and  a  sand  pile  are  beneficial  in 
the  yards.  During  the  summer  it  often  becomes  very 
warm  in  poultry  yards,  and  comfort  can  be  provided 
the  birds  by  planting  shade  trees  in  the  yards.  If  fruit 
trees  are  planted  they  will  serve  a  double  purpose  by 
providing  shade  and  bearing  fruit. 

Exercise. — One  of  the  most  important  features  in 
successful  poultry  management  is  to  make  the  birds  ex- 
ercise. Some  breeds  are  apt  to  be  lazy,  and  hard  to 
keep  in  good  laying  condition  unless  they  are  forced 
to  exercise,  while  other  breeds  are  naturally  very  active 
and  easily  kept  in  good  condition.  Laying  hens  and 
breeding  cocks  especially  require  a  great  deal  of  exer- 
cise for  best  results.  This  may  be  accomplished  when 
the  birds  are  confined  by  providing  a  heavy  loose  litter 
of  short-cut  straw  3  to  6  inches  in  depth  and  scattering 
the  grain  food  over  it,  thus  forcing  the  birds  to  exer- 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING.  373 

else  to  obtain  their  food.  In  summer  the  use  of  yards 
or  the  range  will  give  the  birds  the  needed  exercise. 

Grit. — It  is  not  sufficient  to  furnish  poultry  with 
grain,  animal  and  green  food,  but  grit  must  also  be  sup- 
plied. Poultry  have  no  teeth  and  grit  performs  the 
function  of  grinding  the  food.  Broken  glass  and 
ground  oyster  shells  should  always  be  before  the  birds. 
Oyster  shells  are  rich  in  lime,  which  constituent  is  neces- 
sary for  the  formation  of  firm  shells.  Grit  may  be  pur^ 
chased  from  any  of  the  leading  poultry  supply  houses. 

Dusting  Boxes. — The  use  of  dusting  boxes  proves 
beneficial  as  a  preventive  against  lice.  Poultry  must 
be  supplied  with  dusting  boxes  for  their  good  health. 
Fine  road  dust  is  excellent,  and  enough  of  it  should  be 
secured  in  the  summer  or  early  fall  to  last  through  the 
winter  and  early  spring.  The  dusting  box  should  be 
kept  clean  and  new  dust  added  from  time  to  time.  The 
use  of  loam  or  clay  soil  is  not  satisfactory  as  it  tends 
to  pack  or  cake.  Coal  ashes  finely  ground  are  some- 
times employed.  Wood  ashes  should  not  be  used  as 
they  tend  to  bleach  the  legs  and  dry  up  the  skin  and 
feathers.  A  dusting  box  2^4  to  3  feet  square  and  7 
to  8  inches  high  is  ample  for  20  to  25  birds.  The  dust- 
ing box  should  be  situated  so  that  the  sun  will  shine  on 
it  part  of  the  day. 

Marking  Poultry. — In  order  to  keep  a  record  of 
what  each  hen  is  doing  and  her  age,  the  marking  of 
poultry  is  important.  This  may  be  accomplished  by 
the  use  of  numbered  legbands.  The  legbands  should 
be  placed  on  the  pullets  as  they  mature.  Sometimes 
the  poultryman  punches  a  hole  in  one  of  the  four  webs 
of  the  feet  each  year.  Legbands  and  punches  may  be 
purchased  from  any  of  the  leading  poultry  supply 
houses.  By  marking  poultry  a  complete  record  can  be 
kept  of  every  bird  and  those  that  are  not  profitable 
may  be  killed.  All  the  older  birds  can  be  disposed  of 
when  their  usefulness  is  passed. 

Care  of  the  Setting  Hen. — In  selecting  hens  for  sit- 
ting, the  irritable,  nervous  and  weak  hens  should  be 


374  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

avoided.  The  nests  should  be  placed  In  a  secluded 
and  quiet  part  of  the  poultry  house,  and  kept  just  for 
this  purpose.  A  good  nest  may  be  made  by  putting  in 
3  to  4  inches  of  earth,  and  hollowing  it  out  in  the  mid- 
dle and  covering  with  fine  cut  straw.  The  hens  should 
be  dusted  with  insect  powder  before  they  go  on  the 
nest,  and  again  at  the  end  of  lo  to  I2  days  to  keep 
them  free  from  vermin.  If  the  hens  become  infested 
with  lice  they  become  nervous  and  a  poor  hatch  will 
result.  If  it  is  cold  when  the  hens  begin  to  sit  fewer 
eggs  should  be  used  than  in  warm  weather.  The 
smaller  breeds  cannot  sit  on  as  many  eggs  as  the  larger 
fowls.  The  range  of  eggs  varies  from  ii  to  17  per 
nest  with  an  average  of  13.  Food,  water  and  a  dust- 
ing box  should  be  placed  near  the  sitting  hens. 

How  to  Preserve  Eggs. — The  most  satisfactory 
method  of  preserving  eggs  is  by  means  of  waterglass. 
This  may  be  purchased  at  most  any  drug  store.  One 
part  of  waterglass  should  be  mixed  with  eight  to  ten 
parts  of  water,  and  placed  in  a  receptacle  of  wood, 
iron  or  earthenware.  The  water  should  be  boiled  be- 
fore it  is  mixed  with  the  waterglass.  One  gallon  of 
waterglass  is  ample  for  about  fifty  dozen  eggs.  The 
eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  where  the  tempera- 
ture remains  fairly  constant.  Every  day  when  the 
eggs  are  collected  they  should  be  put  in  the  waterglass, 
and  none  other  than  fresh  eggs  should  ever  be  pre- 
served. 

Section  LIX. — Dairying. 

By  Dr.  F.  W.  Woll, 
Department  of  Agricultural  Chemistry,  University  of  Wisconsin. 

Dairying  is  the  industry  that  deals  with  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  the  manufacture  of  butter  and 
cheese.  This  industry  is  of  special  importance  in  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Wisconsin. 
There  were  only  seventeen  million  dairy  cows  in  this 
country  in  the  year  1900,  and  the  products  of  these 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


375 


cows  represented  in  the  aggregate  a  value  of  nearly 
half  a  billion  dollars  per  year.  In  this  country  the  cow 
is  practically  the  only  animal  kept  for  the  production 
of  milk  and  other  dairy  products,  but  other  animals, 
such  as  goats,  ewes,  asses,  mares,  buffaloes  or  camels, 
are  used  for  this  purpose  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 
Milk  Breeds. — The  cow  secretes  the  white  nutritious 
fluid  known  as  milk  during  a  period  of  six  to  ten  months 


DAIRY   COW,    WITH   GOOD    UDDER. 


from  the  time  of  calving.  The  yield  of  milk  is  largest 
directly  after  calving,  and  gradually  decreases  after  a 
few  months  until  it  entirely  ceases  toward  the  time  of 
the  next  calving.  A  good  dairy  cow  will  give  milk  at 
least  nine  months  during  the  year;  in  many  cases  the 
faculty  of  milk  secretion  is  so  highly  developed  that  it 
requires  especial  effort  to  have  the  cows  go  dry.  The 
most  important  breeds  of  dairy  cows  In  this  country 
are  the  Jersey,  Holstein,  Guernsey,  Shorthorn  and  Ayr- 
shire cattle.  All  these  breeds  originated  in  northern 
Europe.     The    large    majority  of  dairy  cows  in  our 


376  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

country  do  not,  however,  belong  to  any  special  breed  of 
cattle,  but  are  of  mixed  breeding,  and  known  as  native 
cows  or  scrubs. 

Milk. — Milk  is  a  complete  food  intended  by  nature 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  young  calf.  Man  has  taken 
advantage  of  the  faculty  of  milk  secretion  by  cows, 
and  through  careful  feeding,  breeding  and  selection  he 
has  gradually  developed  this  faculty,  so  that  cows  now 
yield  far  more  milk  than  is  needed  for  their  offspring. 
Some  cows  have  produced  ten  to  fifteen  times  their 
own  weight  of  milk  during  a  year,  or  over  20,000 
pounds  of  milk  in  all,  but  most  cows  give  less  than  one- 
fourth  this  quantity  annually. 

Composition  of  Milk. — Milk  is  composed  of  the  fol- 
lowing substances :  water,  fat,  casein  and  albumen,  milk 
sugar,  and  ash.  The  composition  of  the  milk  varies 
considerably  with  the  breed  of  the  cow  and  other  fac- 
tors. One  hundred  pounds  of  American  milk  contains, 
on  the  average,  the  following  quantities  of  different 
components : 

Water 87.4  pounds 

Butter  fat 3.7       "      ^ 

Casein  and  albumen. ...   3-2       ;;       I  ^otal  soUds 12.6  pounds 

Milk  sugar 5.0  [  ^ 

Ash 0.7       "      J 

FAT    GLOBULES    IN    MILK,    AS    SEEN    WITH    THE    AID    OF    A    MICROSCOPE: 
THE  GLOBULES  IN  THE  CIRCLE  ARE  THE  MORE  HIGHLY  MAGNIFIED. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


377 


Fat. — The  fat  is  found  in  the  milk  in  the  form  of 
round  globules.  These  are  of  such  minute  size  that  it 
takes  about  6,000  of  them  placed  side 
by  side  to  make  a  line  an  inch  long. 
The  fat  is  the  most  valuable  constitu- 
ent of  the  milk  from  a  commercial 
point  of  view;  hence  milk  is,  as  a  rule, 
paid  for  at  creameries  or  cheese  fac- 
tories according  to  the  amount  of  but- 
ter fat  it  contains;  this  has  been  ren- 
dered possible  by  the  invention  of  the 
Babcock  test  for  fat  in  milk. 

Cream. — When  milk  is  left  standing  for  some  time  a 
thick  yellowish  layer  is  formed  on  top.  This  is  cream 
and  contains  most  of  the  butter  fat  in  the  milk.  The 
thin  portion  under  the  cream  is  skim  milk.     On  account 


:ms^ 


HAND  BABCOCK  MILK 
TESTER. 


CENTRIFUGAL   CREAM    SEPARATOR. 


of  the  difference  in  the  specific  gravities  of  cream  and 
skim  milk  (i.  e.,  the  weight  of  either  compared  with 
that  of  an  equal  quantity  of  water)  the  separation 
can  also  be  effected  by  centrifugal  force;  the  machine 


378 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


in  which  this  is  done  is  called  a  cream  separator  or 
centrifuge.  These  are  either  hand  or  power  ma- 
chines. Hand  separators  are 
used  on  dairy  farms,  while  only 
steam-power  centrifuges  are 
used  in  butter  factories  (cream- 
eries). The  largest  of  these 
machines  separate 
the  cream  from  the 
skim  milk  at  the  rate 
of  5,000  pounds,  or 
about  2,500  quarts, 
of  milk  per  hour. 
Cream  is  used  for 
table  or  culinary  pur- 
poses, and  for  the 
manufacture  of  but- 
ter. 

Butter. — In     the 
manufacture   of  but- 


A   HAND  CREAM   SEPARATOR. 

ter  the  cream  is  either  al- 
lowed to  sour  (ripen)  be- 
fore being  placed  in  the 
churn,  or  is  churned  di- 
rectly without  ripening. 
The  former  method  gives 
us  the  ordinary  market 
butter  (sour-cream  but- 
ter), the  latter  method 
sweet-cream  butter. 
When  cream  of  a  tem- 
perature of  50  to  60 
degrees  Fahrenheit  is 
stirred    or    agitated    in    a 

churn  for  twenty  minutes  or  more,  the  butter  fat  will 
gather  into  granules  or  small  lumps  which  also  contain 


A  BARREL   CHURN. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING.  379 

Other  components  of  butter,  viz.,  water,  casein,  and  a 
little  milk  sugar  or  acid.  The  buttermilk  is  allowed  to 
drain  off  and  the  butter  is  washed  with  cold  water, 
salted  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  consumer  and  worked  on 
a  butter  worker,  or  in  a  combined  churn  and  worker;  it 
is  then  ready  to  be  packed  into  tubs  or  made  into  pack- 
ages weighing  a  pound  each  ("  point  butter  ").  Ordi- 
nary market  butter  has  the  following  average  compo- 
sition: 

Water  12.0  per  cent.,  fat  84.2  per  cent.,  casein  and 
milk  sugar  1.3  per  cent.,  and  ash  (salt)  2.5  per  cent. 

Butter  made  from  sweet  cream  is  usually  not  salted, 
and  contains  somewhat  more  water,  fat  and  casein 
than  sour-cream  butter,  and  only  about  one-tenth  of  a 
per  cent,  of  ash.  Under  the  Federal  pure-food  law 
butter  must  contain  at  least  82.5  per  cent,  of  fat  and 
not  more  than  16  per  cent,  of  water.  A  small  amount 
of  butter  color  is  added  to  the  cream  in  order  to  secure 
butter  of  a  uniform  color  through  the  entire  year. 

Cheese. — Numerous  kinds  of  cheese  are  made  from 
milk.  We  shall  here  only  mention  two  types  com- 
monly made  in  this  country,  viz.,  Cheddar  cheese  and 
cottage  cheese. 

Cheddar  or  American  Cheese  is  made  by  adding  a 
small  amount  of  rennet  extract  to  the  milk.  The  ren- 
net contains  a  ferment  which  causes  the  milk  to  curdle. 
The  curd  is  cut  into  small  cubes  and  carefully  heated 
in  the  cheese  vat  so  that  it  contracts  and  hardens.  The 
whey  is  then  strained  off,  and  the  curd  salted,  put  into 
forms  and  pressed.  The  cheese  is  placed  in  a  curing 
cellar  where  it  is  kept  at  an  even  temperature  for  a 
period  ranging  from  a  few  weeks  to  half  a  year  or 
more.  American  cheese  is  often  sold  only  a  couple  of 
weeks  old  when  it  has  not  yet  ripened  into  a  nutritious, 
easily  digested  food;  it  takes  several  months  for  cheese 
to  ripen  properly. 

Cottage  Cheese. — Instead  of  adding  rennet  to  curdle 
the  milk,  this  may  be  allowed  to  sour  spontaneously  at 
ordinary  room  temperature,  which  will  occur  within 


38o  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

two  or  three  days.  The  curd  thus  obtained  is  strained 
from  the  whey  and,  after  being  salted,  makes  sour-milk 
or  cottage  cheese.  This  kind  of  cheese  does  not  have 
to  undergo  any  ripening  process,  but  is  consumed  within 
a  few  days  after  it  is  made. 

Composition  of  Cheese. — Cured  Cheddar  cheese  is 
composed  of  about  32  per  cent,  of  water,  34  per  cent, 
of  butter  fat,  28  per  cent,  of  casein  and  albumen,  3  per 
cent,  of  organic  acids  (mainly  lactic  acid,  the  acid  of 
sour  milk),  and  3  per  cent,  of  salt.  "Full-cream 
cheese  "  means  cheese  made  from  milk  containing  all 
the  cream  it  ordinarily  had.  Milk  Is  sometimes  partly 
skimmed  before  being  coagulated  with  rennet,  and  the 
product  thus  obtained  is  called  part-skim,  half-skim 
cheese,  etc.  Full-skim  cheese  is  also  manufactured  at 
times  from  pure  skim  milk,  but  this  does  not  make  a 
palatable  food,  being  hard,  horny  and  flavorless,  even 
when  cured  for  months.  In  many  states  the  manu- 
facture of  part  or  full-skim  milk  cheese  Is  prohibited 
by  law. 

Other  Dairy  Products. — Condensed  Milk  Is  manu- 
factured from  whole  milk  or  partly  skimmed  milk  by 
evaporating  a  certain  portion  of  the  water  contained 
therein.  The  volume  of  the  milk  is  reduced  to  one- 
third  or  more  in  the  process  of  evaporation,  which 
takes  place  in  large  vacuum  pans.  Condensed  milk 
should  contain  at  least  8  per  cent,  of  butter  fat,  and  be 
free  from  any  foreign  substance,  except  cane  sugar, 
which  is  added  in  the  manufacture  of  sweetened  con- 
densed milk.  Condensed  milk  makes  a  good  substi- 
tute for  whole  milk  or  cream,  and  is  used  in  cases  where 
whole  milk  cannot  be  obtained,  e.  g.,  on  long  voyages, 
in  mining  camps,  etc. 

Milk  Sugar  Is  obtained  by  evaporating  the  whey  and 
allowing  the  crystals  of  milk  sugar  to  form.  It  Is  used 
extensively  in  the  manufacture  of  infant  foods  and  me- 
dicinal preparations. 

Buttermilk  and  Whey  are,  as  we  have  seen,  by-prod- 
ucts In  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese.     Both  of 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING.  381 

these  materials,  as  well  as  skim  milk^  are  used  for  feed- 
ing farm  animals,  especially  calves,  pigs  or  poultry. 

Care  of  Milk. — Milk  is  a  very  unstable  product,  and 
unless  special  precautions  are  taken  it  will  turn  sour 
within  twenty-four  hours,  if  kept  at  ordinary  tempera- 
ture. This  is  due  to  the  presence  therein  of  bacteria. 
These  are  microscopic  plants  which  get  into  the  milk 
through  dust  in  the  barn  and  from  other  sources,  and 
begin  to  multiply  in  the  milk  shortly  after  it  is  drawn; 
through  their  life-processes  they  break  down  the  sugar 
of  the  milk  into  lactic  acid.  When  a  certain  acidity 
has  been  reached  (over  0.3  of  one  per  cent.)  the  milk 
will  taste  and  smell  sour,  and  if  the  acidity  exceeds  0.75 


PROGENY    DF  R  /^^-^S^^^ 


VA^-^^ 


SINGLE    DERM 


IN 


IN  TWELVE  HOURS    ^f^^^J^/r  m 

COOLING   MILK   PREVENTS   THE    RAPID   GROWTH    OF   BACTERIA. 

of  one  per  cent.,  it  will  curdle  (coagulate).  Any 
means  of  precaution  that  will  prevent  the  infection  of 
the  milk  or  check  the  growth  of  bacteria  therein  will 
tend  to  increase  the  keeping  quality  of  the  milk.  As 
bacteria  are  abundantly  present  in  all  kinds  of  dirt, 
cleanliness  is  a  most  important  factor  in  preventing  the 
souring  of  milk.  Milk  pails,  glass  bottles,  and  other 
utensils  in  which  milk  is  kept  must  be  scrupulously 
clean.  Another  factor  is  cooling  the  milk  to  a  low 
temperature  (below  40°  F.  if  practicable),  and  keep- 
ing it  at  this  temperature  until  consumed.  Bacteria 
grow  very  slowly  or  not  at  all  at  low  temperatures. 


382 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


Sterilization  and  Pasteurization. — Since  the  souring 
of  milk  depends  on  the  growth  of  the  bacteria  found 
therein  it  follows  that  if  these  are  destroyed,  e.  g.,  by 

heating  the  milk  to  the 
boiling  point,  it  will  keep 
for  a  long  period,  per- 
haps indefinitely,  pro- 
vided all  the  bacteria 
have  been  destroyed  in 
the  heating  process.  The 
milk  has  then  been  ster- 
ilized. As  the  process 
of  sterilization  changes 
the  properties  of  the  milk 
and  may  decrease  some- 
what its  value  as  a  food 
for  infants  or  invalids, 
the  heating  is  now  not 
generally  carried  so  far, 
but  only  to  the  point  of 
pasteurization.  By  "pas- 
teurization "  is  meant  the  application  of  sufficient  heat 
to  destroy  all  bacteria  in  the  milk,  but  not  their  spores. 
This  is  accomplished  by  heating  the  milk  for  twenty 
minutes  at  140°  F.,  or  for  shorter  periods  at  higher 
temperatures.  If  the  milk  is  cooled  promptly  after 
being  heated,  it  will  not  have  a  cooked  taste,  and  will 
have  similar  properties  as  fresh,  so-called  raw  milk. 
Owing  to  its  freedom  from  bacteria  pasteurized  milk 
will  remain  sweet  for  several  days  if  kept  at  a  low 
temperature. 

Preservation  of  the  milk  by  heat  and  subsequent 
cooling  is  the  only  legitimate  method  of  improving  the 
keeping  qualities  of  milk.  The  laws  of  most  states  in 
the  Union  prohibit  the  use  of  chemicals  for  preserving 
milk.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  chemicals  decrease 
the  digestibility  of  the  milk,  and  may  seriously  affect 
the  health  of  infants  and  sick  persons  who  depend 
largely  on  milk  for  their  nourishment. 


THE  BLACK  SPACE  SHOWS  NUMBER 
OF  BACTERIA  IN  NORMAL  FRESH 
milk;  the  WHITE  SQUARE  THE 
NUMBER  AFTER  PASTEURIZA- 
TION. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING. 


383 


%,--^     '"^^Sr-              S 

m»                                                         js^^^mjI^^^^M 

^ii  ^!iiBa'^M^*"'---*^B 

^^M^^flriftBO^^ill^SiH 

■HBP*^      '"'  J«  »  bi    IfllK  ' 

i 

.*^,p#l-^  '**'»  !f  f  ,•  flfl^. 

A    WELL-KEPT    DAIRY    BARN    WITH    A   DOUBLE    ROW    OF    STALLS. 

Necessity  for  the  Caring  of  Milk. — Milk  from  dis- 
eased cows  should  never  be  used  as  a  food  for  man  or 
beast,  unless  it  has  been  sterilized.  Since  milk  is  the 
most  important  and  often  the  sole  diet  of  infants  and 


A    MODEL    BARN    FOR    DAIRY    PURPOSES. 


384  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

young  children,  the  purity  of  the  milk  supply  should 
be  safeguarded  by  all  means  known  to  modern  dairy 
science.  Milk  has  at  times  been  the  means  of  spread- 
ing contagious  diseases,  like  scarlet  fever,  typhoid 
fever,  etc.  The  greatest  stress  must,  therefore,  be  laid 
on  the  importance  of  cleanliness  in  the  barn  and  the 
dairy,  as  v/ell  as  in  the  handling  of  the  milk  in  the 
household. 

Dairying  is  a  special  branch  of  agriculture,  which 
makes  great  demands  on  those  that  follow  it,  with  re- 
gard to  industry,  order,  care  and  cleanliness;  on  the 
other  hand,  when  conducted  right,  it  is  more  remu- 
nerative than  most  other  branches  of  farming;  dairy 
farmers  are  able  to  maintain  and  even  increase  the  fer- 
tility of  their  farms  by  purchasing  commercial  feeding 
stuffs  for  their  cows  and  taking  good  care  of  the  stable 
manure  produced  on  the  farm.  Dairying  is,  there- 
fore, not  an  exhaustive  system  of  farming,  like  the 
production  of  field  crops,  truck  gardening,  etc. 

Exercise. — Have  you  ever  seen  a  Babcock  test  worked?  If  so,  be 
prepared  to  describe  it  to  the  rest  of  the  class.  When  engaged  in 
butter-making,  which  is  the  more  economical  to  keep,  a  cow  giving 
6,000  pounds  of  milk  a  year  testing  5  per  cent,  butter  fat,  or  one 
giving  7,000  pounds  of  milk  testing  3.5  per  cent,  butter  fat?  Having 
two  cows,  one  producing  25  pounds  of  milk  per  day  and  the  other 
producing  16  pounds  of  milk  per  day,  and  both  cows  receiving  the 
same  amount  of  feed,  what  would  be  the  saving  per  day  and  per 
month,  when  milk  is  selling  at  30  cents  a  gallon  (weight  8.6  pounds) 
retail,  by  feeding  according  to  milk  production?  ,, 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING. 

Live-stock  and  Dairying. 
Horses  :  r  i 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  Circular  Nos. :  •    .     "     ■' 

37 — Market  classes  of  horses. 

137 — The  preservation  of  our  native  types  of  horses. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No. : 

122 — Illinois — Market    classes    and    grades    of    horses    and  -, 

mules.  '  .•:'*"    I 

Cattle:  ■  ■,  .r       .] 

Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture:    "       ■'  .  '     -   '    1 

1908 — Some  facts  about  tuberculous  cattle.  I 

Farmers'  Bulletins.  Nos.:  ;^,! 

55 — The  dairy  herd.  --.       -..v.-'-li 

71 — Essentials  of  beef  production. 


LIVE-STOCK   AND   DAIRYING.  3^5 

lo6 — Breeds  of  dairy  cattle. 

183 — Meat  on  the  farm ;  butchering,  curing  and  keeping. 
184 — Marketing  live-stock. 
206 — Milk  fever. 

233 — Beef  vs.  dairy  types  for  beef. 
350 — The  dehorning  of  cattle. 

351 — The  tuberculin  test  of  cattle  for  tuberculosis. 
378 — Methods  of  exterminating  the  Texas  fever  tick. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No. : 
84 — Louisiana — Texas  fever. 

Sheep  : 

Farmers'  Bulletins,   Nos. : 

96 — Raising  sheep  for  mutton. 

119 — Establishing  a  flock  of  mutton  sheep. 

360 — Market  classes  and  grades  of  sheep. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  No. : 

129 — Illinois — Market  classes  and  grades  of  sheep. 
Swine  : 

Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1908 — Recent  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  con- 
cerning the  cause  and  prevention  of  hog  cholera. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,   Nos. : 

22-92-97-133-144-210-251-30S — Feeding. 

56-84-97-124-305-331-334 — Forage  crops  for  hogs. 

100 — Hog-raising  in  the  South. 

^33 — Profitable  crops  for  pigs. 

205 — Pig  management. 

222 — Market  classes  and  grades  of  swine. 

272 — A  successful  hog  and  seed  corn  farm. 

329 — Hogging  off  corn. 

379 — Hog  cholera. 

Poultry : 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

51 — Standard  varieties  of  chickens. 

64 — Ducks  and  geese. 

103-273-296 — Preserving  eggs. 

114 — Floor  space  necessary  per  hen. 

200-225 — Turkeys. 

225-227 — Poultry-house  construction. 

236-281-309 — Incubation  and  incubators. 

244-316-317 — Poultry  appliances. 

287 — Poultry  management. 

355 — A  successful  poultry  and  dairy  farm. 

357 — Methods  of  poultry  management  at  the  Maine  Experi- 
ment Station. 
Dairying: 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1896 — Care  of  dairy  utensils. 

1897 — Utilization  of  by-products  of  the  dairy. 

1902 — Dairying  at  home  and  abroad. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

29 — Souring  of  milk  and  other  changes  in  milk  products. 

42 — Facts  about  milk. 


386  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

55 — The  dairy  herd. 

63 — Care  of  milk  on  the  farm. 

74-363 — Milk  as  a  food. 

114-162-190 — Profitable  and  unprofitable  cows. 

149 — Effect  of  exposure  on  milk  production. 

151-349 — Dairying  in  the  South. 

166 — Cheese-making  on  the  farm. 

241 — Butter-making  on  the  farm. 

348 — Bacteria   in   milk. 

355 — A  successful  poultry  and  dairy  farm. 

366 — Milk  supply  of  cities. 

366 — Effect  of  machine-milking  on  cows. 
Books: 

Types  and  Breeds  of  Live  Stock — Plumb — Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 
Principles  of  Breeding — Davenport — Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 
Farm   Animals — Wilcox — Doubleday,   Page   &   Co.,    New   York 

City. 
The  Horse — Roberts — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Farm  Poultry — Watson — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Testing  Milk  and  Its  Products — Farrington  &  Woll — Mendota 

Pub.  Co.,  Madison,  Wis. 
Milk  and  Its  Products — Wing — Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Bacteria  in  Milk  and  Its  Products — Conn — P.  Blakiston's  Son  & 

Co.,  Philadelphia. 
Elements  of  Dairying — Decker — Published  by  the  author. 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Butter-Making — McKay  &  Larsen — 

Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York  City. 
Modern    Methods    of   Testing    Milk   and    Milk    Products — Van 

Slyke — Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Dairy  Chemistry — Snyder — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. 
Section  LX. — The  Composition  of  Plants. 

By  Prof.  J.  E.  Halligan, 
Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Experiment  Station. 

Animals  live  on  entirely  different  substances  from 
plants.  The  latter  require  mineral  substances  and  air 
for  existence,  while  animals  use  the  substances  which 
are  stored  up  by  the  plants  for  their  food.  The  sub- 
stances which  the  plant  stores  up  in  its  period  of 
growth  are  termed  dry  matter  and  water.  When  the 
water  is  driven  off  from  plants  the  dry  matter  is  what 
remains.  If  we  burn  this  dry  matter  a  large  propor- 
tion of  it  passes  off  in  the  form  of  invisible  gases. 
This  material  which  so  disappears  is  known  as  or- 
ganic matter.  That  which  is  left  is  the  ash  or  mineral 
matter.  The  amounts  of  organic  matter  and  ash  vary 
in  different  kinds  of  plants  and  grains.  The  organic 
matter  is  composed  of  protein,  fats,  nitrogen  free  ex- 
tract, and  fiber.  The  ash  is  made  up  of  soda,  phos- 
phorus, sulphur,  potash,  lime,  sand  and  other  mineral 
substances. 

Protein. — This  includes  all  the  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds present  in  plants.  It  is  represented  in  the 
animal  by  the  lean  meat,  muscles  and  ligaments  which 
connect  the  bones,  the  organic  parts  of  bone,  the  nerves, 
the  brain  and  the  internal  organs.  The  white  of  egg, 
the  curd  of  milk,  glue,  gelatin,  and  the  gluten  of  flour 
approach  pure  protein  in  composition.  The  other 
constituents,  namely,  fats,  carbohydrates,  water  and 
ash,  do  not  contain  any  protein. 

387 


388  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Fats. — The  substances  called  fats  are  also  termed 
ether  extract  because  they  Include  those  parts  of  feed 
stuffs  which  are  dissolved  out  by  ether.  Oils,  fats, 
waxes,  and  coloring  matters  (such  as  chlorophyll) 
come  under  this  group.  Cotton-seed  oil,  olive  oil,  lin- 
seed oil,  butter,  hog  lard,  fish  oil,  and  tallow  are  ex- 
amples of  fats. 

Nitrogen  Free  Extract. — This  is  made  up  principally 
of  the  sugars,  starches,  dextrins  and  gums.  As  the 
name  implies,  it  is  free  from  nitrogen. 

Fiber. — The  woody  parts  of  plants  are  called  fiber. 
Cotton  lint  is  almost  pure  fiber. 

Carbohydrates. — This  is  the  name  given  to  the  ni- 
trogen free  extract  and  the  fiber,  when  taken  together. 
These  substances  are  called  carbohydrates,  because  they 
are  compounds  of  carbon,  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 
When  they  are  digested  by  the  animal  they  have  the 
same  value,  and  they  satisfy  equal  demands. 

Water. — All  feed  stuffs,  no  matter  how  dry  they  may 
appear  to  be,  contain  water.  The  average  per  cent. 
of  water  in  feeds  such  as  oats,  corn  (grain),  cotton- 
seed meal,  etc.,  is  about  lo  per  cent.  The  green  grasses 
contain  about  80  per  cent,  of  water,  and  root  crops 
carry  about  90  per  cent,  of  water. 

Classification. — The  following  statement  gives  the 
parts  of  plants  (feed  stuffs)  in  a  condensed  form: 

Feed  Stuff  \  ^^^L,,,^J  ArLni.  f  Protein 

(  Dry  Matter  j  Organic  I  ^^^^  .  ^.^^^^^^  p^^^ 

L  Matter   |^  Carbohydrates  ]       Extract 
L  Fiber 

Composition    of  Feed  Stuffs. — The  composition  of 

feed  stuffs   (plants  and  grains)   may  be  expressed  as 

follows : 

Protein  Fiber 

Fats  (Ether  Extract)  Water 

Nitrogen  Free  Extract  Ash 

Exercise. — Take  one  pound  of  green  grass  and  dry  it  in  the  sun. 
What  is  the  loss  in  weight?     What  is  this  loss  in  weight  due  to? 

Have  some  pupils  bring  grains  of  corn  and  Irish  potatoes  to  the 
classroom.     Purchase  five  cents'  worth  of  tincture  of  iodine  at  any 


FEEDS    AND    FEEDING.  '  389 

drug  store.  Dilute  this  with  water.  Cut  the  corn  and  potatoes  into 
small  pieces  and  place  a  drop  of  the  diluted  iodine  solution  on  a  few 
of  these  pieces.  Note  the  blue  color,  due  to  the  presence  of  starch 
which  is  stored  up  by  the  plants  during  the  growing  process.  It  is 
well  to  have  the  iodine  dilute  in  order  to  get  a  delicate  reaction. 

Take  a  small  quantity  of  hay  and  have  the  pupils  approximate  the 
weight  of  it.  Burn  this  hay  in  a  dish  and  show  the  scholars  the  ash. 
Ask  them  the  loss  in  weight.  Let  them  rub  the  ash  between  their 
fingers. 


Section   LXI. — The    Composition   of   Farm 
Animals  and  the  Nutritive  Elements. 

Animal  Substances. — The  constituents  of  animals  are 
similar  to  those  of  plants,  although  they  are  somewhat 
different  in  actual  composition. 

The  substances  in  an  animal  may  be  divided  Into 
water  and  dry  matter.  The  dry  matter  Is  composed 
of  the  ash  and  the  organic  matter.  The  organic  matter 
is  made  up  of  protein  and  fats. 

Animal  ]  ^^^^L  . .      <  Ash  i  v,    ,  • 

(  Dry  Matter  -j  q^^^^j^  ^^^^^^  |  Protem 

Water. — The  bodies  of  all  animals  are  made  of  50 
per  cent,  water.  The  water  is  present  in  the  animal  in 
a  free  state  in  the  tissues  and  the  blood.  Young 
animals  contain  a  greater  per  cent,  of  water  than  the 
old  animals. 

Dry  Matter. — This  Is  what  is  left  after  the  water  is 
driven  off,  and  represents  about  50  per  cent,  of  the 
weight  of  the  animal.  It  is  made  up  of  fats,  protein 
and  ash. 

Fats. — Mutton  suet,  hog  lard  and  beef  tallow  are 
examples  of  animal  fats.  Animal  fats  are  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  the  fats  of  plants. 

Protein. — This  is  represented  In  the  animal  in  the 
form  of  lean  meat,  organic  part  of  bones,  muscles,  liga- 
ments, nerves.  Internal  organs  and  the  brain. 

Ash. — This  Includes  all  the  mineral  substances,  and 
is  made  up  of  the  same  ingredients  as  mentioned  under 
the  composition  of  plants. 


iter 

Ash 

Protein 

Fat 

•  4% 

4-4% 

17-4% 

18.8% 

.1 

5-1 

16.6 

25.2 

•9 

2.9 

15.0 

24.2 

•9 

1-9 

II. 9 

42.3 

■5 

4.0 

18.3 

10.2 

•3 

31 

12.2 

41.4 

390  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Carbohydrates. — This  group  of  substances  is  not  in- 
cluded in  the  above  classification,  because  the  animal 
changes  the  carbohydrates  into  fats  and  glycogen  in 
the  processes  of  digestion  and  assimilation. 

COMPOSITION   OF  ANIMALS. 

Ws 

Steer,  17  months  old 59 

Steer,  24  months  old 53 

Swine,  well  fed 57 

Swine,  fat 43 

Sheep,  lean 67 

Sheep,  very  fat 43 

The  data  in  the  above  table  was  worked  out  by 
Lawes  and  Gilbert  and  the  Maine  Experiment  Station. 
It  shows  that  lean  animals  contain  a  great  deal  more 
water  than  fat  animals. 

Lean  and  Fat  Animals. — The  following  table  gives 
the  proportion  of  dressed  carcass  of  lean  and  fat 
animals,  according  to  Lawes  and  Gilbert : 

Ox  Sheep  Swine 

Lean  animal 47%  45%  73% 

Fat  animal 60  53  82 

A  fat  animal  contains  less  water  than  a  lean  animal, 
because  the  increase  in  fat  is  made  up  largely  of  dry 
matter.  The  fatty  substances  do  not  replace  the  water, 
but  an  increase  in  fat  in  the  animal  body  means  a 
greater  increase  in  dry  matter. 

The  Nutritive  Elements. — Protein,  fats,  carbohy- 
drates, water  and  ash  serve  to  supply  the  needs  of 
animals.  Protein,  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  usually 
called  the  nutritive  elements.  Water  and  ash  are  not 
included.  The  water  can  be  supplied  in  a  cheaper 
form  than  in  a  feed  stuff,  and  there  is  generally  suffi- 
cient ash  present  in  feed  stuffs  to  enable  us  not  to  con- 
sider this  ingredient. 

Purpose  of  the  Nutritive  Elements. — Animals  use 
food  in  two  ways:  i.  To  build  up  the  body  and  repair 
broken  down  tissue.  2.  To  produce  energy,  to  keep 
warm,  and  to  supply  that  power  which  gives  locomotion 
or  movement  to  the  animal  body. 


FEEDS   AND    FEEDING. 


391 


Function  of  Ash  or  Mineral  Matter. — All  the  bones 
and  framework  of  the  animal  body  contain  ash  or  min- 
eral compounds.  The  blood,  tissues  and  the  digestive 
fluids  require  mineral  compounds  for  their  existence. 
It  is  fortunate  that  nature  has  supplied  sufficient  min- 
eral matter  in  most  of  the  feeds  that  animals  live  on. 
It  is  only  necessary  to  furnish  mineral  compounds  when 
a  diet  consisting  chiefly  of  grain  is  fed.  Animals  could 
not  live  without  mineral  matter.     Such  substances  as 


DAIRY  CATTLE   CONTAIN    MORE   WATER   THAN    FAT   BEEF   CATTLE. 

common  salt,  wood  ashes  and  precipitated  chalk,  are 
sometimes  fed  in  conjunction  with  other  feeds  to  supply 
the  needs  of  growing  animals. 

Function  of  Protein. — Protein  is  the  main  constitu- 
ent of  muscles,  horn,  hoof,  hair,  ligaments  and  working 
parts  of  the  animal  body.  The  protein  substances  are 
in  reality  the  flesh  formers.  Protein  bodies  repair  the 
broken  down  tissues,  help  form  blood,  and  milk. 
When  animals  are  fed  protein  in  the  right  proportions 
they  possess  great  vigor,  and  without  protein  the  animal 
would  die.     Sometimes  protein  can  be  made  to  take  the 


392  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

place  of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  but  such  substitution 
is  not  practicable,  as  protein  generally  costs  more  than 
fats  and  carbohydrates.  Protein  hardly  ever  performs 
the  functions  of  fats  and  carbohydrates  unless  these 
latter  compounds  are  lacking  in  the  animal's,  food. 

Functions  of  Fats  and  Carbohydrates. — These  nu- 
trients supply  the  fuel  for  the  animal  body.  They  fur- 
nish the  materials  that  keep  the  animal  warm.  The 
fats  and  the  carbohydrates  also  produce  fat  in  the 
animal  body.  The  fats  are  not  always  changed  in 
forming  fatty  tissue,  but  the  carbohydrates  are  trans- 
formed into  fats  before  being  stored  as  such.  As  an 
energy  and  heat  producer  fats  have  a  greater  value 
than  carbohydrates.  Fats  are  considered  as  being  2.25 
times  more  valuable  than  carbohydrates  in  this  respect. 
In  other  words,  one  pound  of  fat  is  worth  2.25  times 
as  much  as  one  pound  of  carbohydrates  for  animal  fuel. 

*  Classification  of  the  functions  of  the  nutritive  ele- 
ments : 

{Supplies  materials  for  the  bones  and  framework  of  the 
body.  Helps  build  up  the  blood,  tissues,  digestive 
fluids  and  secretions. 

{The  flesh  formers.  Substances  for  the  making  of  the  lean 
meat,  muscles,  skin,  ligaments,  horn,  hair  and  milk. 
Sometimes  used  as  fuel  to  give  warmth  and  energy. 

{Furnish  fuel  to  keep  the  animal  warm.  Help  to  pro- 
duce energy.  Aid  in  the  production  of  fatty  tissue. 
As  a  heat  producer  fats  are  2.25  times  as  valuable  as 
carbohydrates. 

r  Supply  the  fuel  to  keep  the  animal  warm  and  to  pro- 
Carbohydrates-|       duce  energy.     Are  transformed  into  fats  for  the 
t     production  of  fatty  tissue. 

Do  not  make  the  pupils  memorize  the  tables  in  this  section,  but 
require  them  to  understand  the  fundamental  principles  involved. 
Take  the  class  to  some  pasture  or  stable  and  have  them  look  over 
some  animals.  Make  them  feel  the  body  warmth.  Show  them  to 
which  parts  of  the  animal  the  protein,  fats,  carbohydrates,  water  and 
ash  are  distributed. 

*  The  idea  and  some  of  the  data  in  this  classification  came  from 
Bulletin  106  of  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station. 


feeds  and  feeding.  393 

Section  LXII. — Physiology  of   Digestion  and 
Food  Economics. 

By  Dr.  W.  H.  Dalrymple, 
Department  of  Veterinary  Science,  Louisiana  State  University. 

That  which  an  animal  eats  and  drinks  for  the  pur- 
pose of  nourishing  its  body,  constitutes  its  food.  Di- 
gestion is  the  physiological  process,  or  act,  of  changing 
the  food  into  soluble  materials  that  may  be  absorbed, 
.  or  taken  into  the  circulation  and  assimilated,  or  made 
use  of  by  the  cells  of  the  different  tissues  of  which  the 
body  is  composed. 

The  different  steps  in  this  physiological  process  are : 

1.  Prehension,  or  seizing  the  food.  This  is  accom- 
plished in  the  horse  by  the  lips  and  front  teeth;  in  the 
ox  by  the  tongue,  lower  front  teeth  and  dental-pad. 
The  dog  prebends  fluids  by  the  tongue — laps  water, 
for  example. 

2.  Mastication,  or  chewing,  and  insalivation,  or  mix- 
ing the  food  in  the  mouth  with  saliva,  from  the  differ- 
ent salivary  glands,  which  enters  the  mouth  through 
small  ducts  or  tubes. 

Mastication  is  performed  by  the  large  back  teeth, 
molars,  or  grinders,  which  break  up  the  grains  and  hard 
particles;  exposes  them  to  the  chemical  action  of  a  fer- 
ment (ptyalin)  of  the  saliva  (which  changes  insoluble 
starch  into  soluble  sugar)  ;  and  otherwise  prepares 
them  for  later  steps  in  the  digestive  process,  viz.,  in 
the  stomach,  intestines,  etc. 

3.  Deglutition  or  swallowing.  This  step  is  accom- 
plished by  the  aid  of  the  tongue,  certain  muscles  of  the 
throat,  and  the  wave-like  contractions  of  the  oesopha- 
gus or  gullet,  which  carries  the  food  into  the  stomach. 

In  the  ruminating  animal,  such  as  the  ox,  sheep  and 
goat,  which  "  chew  the  cud,"  the  food,  in  a  somewhat 
imperfectly-masticated  condition,  passes  into  the  large 
first  compartment  of  the  stomach  (the  rumen  or 
paunch),  and  then  into  the  second  (honeycomb  or  retic- 


394  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

ulum).  Then,  by  a  special  arrangement  of  the  parts, 
it  is  forced  back  into  the  oesophagus  and  into  the  mouth 
for  final  preparation  by  the  teeth  and  the  saliva.  When 
swallowed  a  second  time,  the  mouthful  of  food  passes 
into  the  third  compartment  (omasum  or  manyplies), 
and  on  to  the  fourth  (abomasum  or  true  digestive  com- 
partment) for  final  stomachal  digestion. 


STOMACH   OF    THE    OX. 

A,  rumen,  left  hemisphere;  B,  rumen,  right  hemisphere;  C,  termination  of  CESophagus; 

D,  reticulum;  E,  omasum;  F,  abomasum.     After  Fleming. 

4.  Chymification  or  stomachal  digestion.  This  step 
refers  to  the  food  materials  being  converted  into  chyme, 
which  is  the  liquid,  or  semi-liquid,  mass  into  which  the 
food  in  the  stomach  is  changed  by  the  action  of  the 
gastric  juice,  aided  by  the  churning  motion  produced 
by  the  muscular  wall  of  that  organ.  When  in  the 
stomach  the  food  is  not  only  rendered  more  liquid  or 


FEEDS    AND   FEEDING.  395 

poultaceous  by  the  gastric  juice  as  a  whole,  but,  by  the 
chemical  ferment,  pepsin,  the  insoluble  protein  Is 
changed  into  soluble  peptone. 

5.  Chylification  or  intestinal  digestion.  This  step 
has  reference  to  the  food  in  the  small  intestine  being 
converted  into  chyle,  which  is  the  nutritive  materials, 
in  liquid  form,  ready  for  absorption  into  the  circula- 
tion. After  reaching  the  small  intestine,  the  food  ma- 
terials are  again  acted  upon  by  ferments  which  have  a 
somewhat  similar  action  to  those  already  spoken  of  in 
connection  with  the  saliva  and  the  gastric  juice.  These 
ferments  are  chiefly  from  the  pancreas,  or  ''  sweet- 
bread," and  are  conveyed  to  the  intestine,  as  a  part  of 
the  pancreatic  juice,  through  the  pancreatic  duct  or 
tube. 

These  ferments  alluded  to  are: 

(a)  Amylopsin,  which  changes  the  insoluble  starch 
into  soluble  sugar. 

(b)  Trypsin,  which  converts  insoluble  protein  into 
soluble  peptone. 

(c)  Steapsin,  which  emulsifies  the  fats  and  oils  in  the 
food,  and  renders  them  more  easy  of  absorption  into 
the  circulation. 

6.  Absorption. — This  is  the  step  by  which  the  nu- 
trient materials  of  the  food,  in  liquid  form,  are  taken 
from  the  alimentary  canal  into  the  circulation  to  be 
carried  by  the  blood  to  all  parts  of  the  body  to  nourish 
the  different  tissues.  And  no  food  is  capable  of  being 
absorbed  until  it  has  first  been  rendered  soluble  by  the 
action  of  the  different  ferments. 

The  sugar  (carbohydrate)  and  the  peptone  are  ab- 
sorbed by  the  small  veins  in  the  walls  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines,  while  the  emulsified  fats  are  absorbed, 
mainly,  by  the  lacteals — small  beginnings  of  the  lym- 
phatic system  distributed  to  the  small  intestine. 

7.  Circulation. — This  step  is  accomplished  by  the 
blood  in  the  arteries  carrying  the  nutritive  materials, 
absorbed  from  the  food,  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

8.  Assimilation. — This   step   is   undertaken   by  the 


396  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

tissue-cells  themselves,  selecting  from  the  blood  or 
lymph,  the  nutritive  elements  required  for  their  main- 
tenance and  development. 

9.  Defecation. — This  final  step  refers  to  the  casting 
off  from  the  body,  in  the  form  of  excrementitious  mat- 
ter, the  inert  indigestible  parts  of  the  food. 

Food  Economics. — Waste  of  food  materials  may  be 
lessened  in  various  ways,  viz. : 

By  having  the  required  digestible  nutrients  properly 
balanced. 

By  maintaining  the  proper  function  of  the  skin 
through  careful  cleansing,  grooming,  etc. 

By  proper  shelter  in  cold  weather,  thereby  prevent- 
ing loss  of  heat  from  the  body  through  radiation  from 
the  skin. 

By  preventing,  when  possible,  too  high  a  tempera- 
ture of  the  surroundings,  stables,  exposure  to  the  hot 
sun,  etc. 

By  kind  and  gentle  handling  or  treatment,  as  all 
forms  of  rough  usage  tend  to  cause  nervousness  and 
excitement,  which  are  incompatible  with  a  normal 
healthy  bodily  condition. 

By  a  sufficiency  of  pure  wholesome  water,  and  a  mod- 
erate supply  of  common  salt;  both  of  which  are  aids 
to  digestion,  etc. 

Exercise. — Trace  the  food  from  the  time  the  ruminant  first  pre- 
hends  it  until  it  reaches  the  fourth  or  true  compartment  of  the 
stomach.  What  ferments  act  on  starch  and  on  protein?  What  could 
be  done  to  economize  an  animal's  food  during  cold  weather? 


Section  LXIII. — Natural  and  Commercial  Stock 

Feeds. 

By  Prof.  J.  E.  Halligan, 
Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Experiment  Station. 

The  natural  feeds  used  for  feeding  stock  include  for- 
age crops,  root  and  tuber  crops,  and  grains  and  seeds. 

Forage  Crops. — Under  this  head  come  the  legumi- 
nous plants,  the  grasses  and  the  grain  plants. 


FEEDS    AND   FEEDING. 


397 


1.  Leguminous  Plants.  These  plants  differ  from 
the  grasses,  and  the  grain  plants  in  that  they  contain 
more  nitrogenous  substances,  namely,  protein;  alfalfa, 
clovers,  vetches,  cowpeas,  soya  bean  Japan  clover  (les- 
pedeza),  are  some  of  our  leguminous  plants. 

2.  Grasses.  The  principal  grasses  used  for  feeding 
are  timothy,  Bermuda,  orchard,  crab,  Johnson,  Ken- 
tucky blue  (June),  and  red  top. 

3.  Grain  Plants.  Corn,  oats,  barley,  rye,  rice  and 
wheat  are  some  examples  of  this  class. 

Husbanding  of  Forage  Crops. — Forage  crops  are 
not  always  fed  in  their  natural  green  state,  but  are 
sometimes  husbanded  in  other  ways.  For  instance, 
our  leguminous  plants,  grasses  and  grain  plants  are 
often  dried  in  the  field  before  harvesting.  This  field 
curing  is  done  to  permit  the  farmer  to  save  these  crops 
and  feed  at  his  pleasure.  Oftentimes  these  forage 
crops  are  put  into  an  air-tight  box,  called  a  silo,  in  their 
green  state.  The  crops  are  chopped  into  small  pieces 
about  one  inch  long.  This  method  of  preserving  crops 
enables  the  feeder  to  furnish  succulent  feed  at  any 
time  of  the  year.     Because  of  unfavorable  weather 


A   MODERN   BARN   WITH   SILO. 


398 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


there  are  sometimes  losses  in  the  field  curing  of  crops. 
On  the  whole  the  preserving  of  forage  crops  in  a  silo 
is  more  profitable. 

Root  Crops. — Turnips,  carrots,  rutabagas,  mangel- 
wurzels  (a  kind  of  beet),  and  beets  are  the  principal 
root  crops  used  for  feeding.  Potatoes  are  sometimes 
fed,  but  they  are  generally  grown  for  human  consump- 
tion. For  making  milk  or  producing  beef  the  feed- 
ing of  root  crops  is  satisfactory.     On  account  of  the 


FILLING   A    WOODEN    SILO. 


tonic  effect,  roots  give  results  far  above  what  the 
chemical  value  would  indicate. 

Grains  and  Seeds. — Some  of  our  principal  grains  and 
seeds  used  for  feeding  farm  animals  are  corn,  cotton- 
seed, rice,  oats,  barley,  flaxseed,  rye,  wheat,  beans  and 
peas.  Most  of  our  grains  and  seeds  must  be  thor- 
oughly dried  before  they  are  stored  away.  If  they  are 
not  completely  dried  they  are  liable  to  ferment  and  de- 
compose. Such  deterioration  spoils  them  for  feeding 
purposes. 

Commercial  Feeds. — These  can  be  denned  as  those 


FEEDS    AND    FEEDING. 


399 


A   CONCRETE    BLOCK   SILO   (CONCRETE   REVIEW). 

feeds  made  from  the  grains,  seeds,  their  by-products, 
all  products  left  after  the  preparation  of  human  foods 
and  beverages,  and  the  by-products  left  after  oil  ex- 
traction. 

Where  Derived. — In   the   manufacture  of  cereals, 


400  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

for  human  food,  there  are  many  parts  of  the  grain 
and  seed  which  are  of  no  further  value  in  such  manu- 
facture. In  most  cases  these  by-products  are  saved 
and  utilized  for  feeds  for  our  stock. 

Value  of  By-Products. — Many  of  these  by-products 
are  valuable  for  feeding.  Cotton-seed  meal,  wheat 
bran,  linseed  meal,  gluten  feed,  dried  brewers'  grains, 
distillers'  grains,  rice  polish  and  hominy  feeds  are  a 
few  of  the  valuable  by-products  found  on  our  mar- 
kets. Others  of  these  waste  products,  such  as  inferior 
corn,  oat  hulls,  rice  hulls,  flax  bran,  and  dust  from 
grain  possess  little  feeding  value  and  are  sometimes 
injurious. 

Nezv  By-Products. — On  account  of  the  high  prices 
of  grain  and  seeds  and  keen  competition,  almost  all  the 
by-products  are  being  saved  and  disposed  of  in  our 
commercial  feeds.  New  by-products  are  continually 
being  put  on  our  market,  either  mixed  with  other  ma- 
terials, or  sold  unmixed. 

Sources  of  Commercial  Feeds. — The  following 
statement  summarizes  the  sources  of  the  by-products. 
These  by-products  are  derived  from — 

1.  The  manufacture  of  cotton-seed  oil,  linseed  oil, 
and  other  vegetable  oils. 

2.  The  manufacture  of  whisky,  beer,  alcohol, 
spirits,  etc. 

3.  The  manufacture  of  human  cereals  (breakfast 
foods). 

4.  The  manufacture  of  glucose  and  starch. 

5.  The  manufacture  of  products  from  grains  such 
as  flour  and  rice. 

6.  The  manufacture  of  cane  sugar,  beet  sugar  and 
sorghum  cuite. 

7.  The  manufacture  of  animal  and  fish  products. 

Exercise. — Why  do  we  call  forage  crops  natural  feeds?  What  are 
the  names  of  the  natural  feeds  used  at  your  home?  Does  the 
corn  at  your  home  ever  get  moldy?  What  are  the  names  of  the 
commercial  feeds  used  at  your  home? 

If  any  of  the  pupils  have  a  silo  at  home  or  have  ever  seen  one, 
have  one  of  them  explain  to  the  class  the  construction  of  it,  the 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING.  401 

way  the  crop  is  prepared  before  storing,  and  the  appearance  of  the 
crop  after  it  has  been  in  the  silo  for  some  time.  Let  one  pupil 
bring  a  sample  of  ensilage  to  school.  Taste  it  and  show  it  to  all 
the  pupils. 


Section  LXIV. — Vegetable  Oil,  Alcoholic  and 
Breakfast  Food  By-Products. 

Vegetable  Oil  By-Products. — The  by-products  from 
the  manufacture  of  vegetable  oils  are  cotton-seed 
meal,  cotton-seed  hulls,  linseed  meal  and  flax  feed. 

Cotton-seed  Meal  and  Hulls. — Attached  to  the 
seed  of  cotton  are  long  white  fibers  known  to  us  as 
cotton.  When  the  cotton  is  ginned  all  of  these  fibers 
or  lint  are  removed  except  a  few  short  fibers  which 
adhere  to  the  seeds.  The  seeds  are  then  taken  to  a 
cotton-seed  oil  mill  and  treated.  First  the  lint  is  re- 
moved leaving  nothing  but  the  seed.  The  seed  is 
composed  of  the  hull,  or  hard  outer  covering,  and  the 
kernel  or  meat.  The  seeds  are  then  put  through  a 
machine  called  the  huller.  This  machine  separates 
the  hulls  from  the  meats.  This  process  is  called  de- 
corticating the  cotton  seed.  The  hulls  obtained  in 
this  process  are  known  as  cotton-seed  hulls.  The 
meats  are  then  cooked  in  special  kettles  and  made  up 
into  cakes  or  forms.  These  hot  forms  are  subjected 
to  great  pressure  and  the  oil  Is  extracted.  The  re- 
maining product  is  ground  and  sold  as  cotton-seed 
meal. 

ANALYSES  OF   COTTON   SEED,   COTTON-SEED   MEAL 
AND   hulls* 

Nitrogen 

Protein     Fat        Free  Ext.  Fiber  Water  Ash 

Cottonseed 18.4%     19.9%    24.7%  23.2%  10.3%  3-5% 

Cotton-seed  meal.  43.0  8.5         25.7  7.8  8.2  6.8 

Hulls 4.2  2.2         33.4  46.3  II. I  2.8 

The  composition  of  cotton-seed  meal  Is  apt  to  vary 

*  Henry,  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


402  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

a  great  deal  depending  upon  the  season,  the  nature  of 
the  land  it  was  raised  on,  and  the  climatic  conditions. 

Cotton  Seed  Nitrogen 

Meal  from      Protein  Fat       Free  Ext.  Fiber     Water  Ash 

Highland 45-46%  8.63%     24.24%  7.25%     8.52%  5.90% 

Lowland 41.63  7.22         26.64  9-68         8.60  6.23 

Linseed  Meal  and  Flax  Feeds. — These  materials 
are  common  in  certain  sections  of  the  Middle  West. 
They  are  derived  from  the  flax  plant  which  is  grown 
for  its  valuable  fiber,  i.  Linseed  meal.  There  are 
two  classes  of  linseed  meal  found  on  the  American 
market,  namely,  old  process  and  new  process  meal. 
The  old  process  meal  is  obtained  by  pressing  out  the 
oil  from  the  cold  or  warmed  crushed  flax  seeds.  The 
new  process  consists  of  extracting  the  oil  from  the 
warmed  crushed  flax  seeds  by  the  use  of  naphtha.  This 
new  process  is  employed  because  it  permits  of  a  greater 
extraction  of  oil.  The  naphtha  is  driven  off  by  steam 
before  the  product  is  placed  upon  the  market. 

ANALYSES  OF  OLD   AND   NEW   PROCESS   LINSEED 
MEAL  AND   FLAX   SEED* 

Protein 
Old  process  meal. . .  32 . 9% 
New  process  meal. .  33 . 2 
Flax  seed 22.6 

Flax  Feed. — This  by-product  is  composed  of  the 
screenings  from  the  flax  seed  as  well  as  part  of  the 
shell  and  fiber  of  the  flax.  It  is  used  to  some  extent 
in  mixed  feeds. 

Alcoholic  By-products. — Brewers'  grains,  malt 
sprouts  and  distillers'  grains  are  examples  of  these  by- 
products. They  are  rich  in  nitrogenous  substances 
containing  about  ^  to  ^  as  much  protein  as  good 
cotton-seed  meal.  i.  Dried  brewers'  grains.  These 
are  the  kiln-dried  by-product  from  the  manufacture 
of  beer.      They  consist   principally  of  barley  grains 

*  Henry,  "  Feeds  and  Feeding."  ' 


Nitrogen 

Fat     Free  Ext. 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash 

7-9%     35-4% 

8.9% 

9.2% 

5.7% 

30         38.4 

9-5 

10. 1 

5-8 

33-7        23.2 

71 

9.2 

4-3 

FEEDS   AND   FEEDING. 


403 


from  which  the  starch  and  other  soluble  matter  have 
been  extracted.  2.  Malt  sprouts.  In  the  fermenting 
of  barley  for  the  manufacture  of  beer  the  barley  be- 
gins to  grow  or  sprout.  When  these  barley  sprouts 
have  attained  the  height  of  about  ^4  ir^ch  they  are  re- 
moved from  the  grain  by  machinery.  They  are  then 
artificially  dried  and  sold  as  malt  sprouts.  3.  Distil- 
lers' grains.  In  the  manufacture  of  whisky  and  alcohol 
the  starch  and  other  soluble  matter  are  removed  from 
the  grain.  The  remaining  product  is  kiln  dried  and 
sold  as  dried  distillers'  grains. 

Breakfast  Food  By-products. — In  the  manufacture 
of  cereal  foods  only  the  sound  grains  are  used.     Oats, 


PRIZE  EARS  OF  CORN.   CORN  IS  THE  SOURCE  OF  MANY  BREAKFAST  FOODS. 


wheat,  corn  and  barley  are  the  principal  grains  from 
which  breakfast  foods  are  made.  The  hulls  of  the 
grains  are  removed,  and  these  hulls  together  with  the 
inferior  grains,  go  to  make  up  commercial  stock  feeds. 
Oat  feeds  and  corn  and  oat  feeds  are  stock  feeds  which 
are   made  up   almost  entirely  of  breakfast   food  by- 


404  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

products.  These  feeds  sometimes  cost  almost  as 
much  as  the  original  grains  from  which  they  are  de- 
rived. 

Exercise. — i.  If  possible,  get  samples  of  cotton  seed,  cotton-seed 
meal,  cotton-seed  hulls,  linseed  meal  and  flaxseed.  Write  in  your 
note-book  a  description  of  them.  Cut  the  cotton  seed  or  the  flax  seed 
open  and  make  a  note  of  the  quantity  of  oil  and  its  odor.  No  mat- 
ter what  section  you  live  in,  you  can  no  doubt  get  some  of  the  above 
materials  at  a  feed  store.  2.  Name  all  the  different  kinds  of  break- 
fast foods  you  have  ever  seen  or  eaten. 

Have  as  many  different  kinds  of  breakfast  foods  brought  by  the 
pupils  as  possible.  As  far  as  possible  let  the  pupils  state  the  grains 
from  which  they  were  made.  Send  one  or  two  pupils  to  a  feed 
store  to  get  samples  of  alcoholic  by-products. 


Section  LXV. — Other  By-products, 

Glucose  and  Starch  By-products. — There  are  many 
by-products  left  from  the  manufacture  of  glucose  and 
starch.  These  by-products  usually  come  from  the 
grain  of  corn.  Gluten  meal,  gluten  feed,  corn  bran, 
hominy  feed,  feed  meal,  and  corn  germ  meal  are  corn 
by-products,  i.  Gluten  meal  is  derived  from  the 
nitrogenous  portion  of  the  corn  grain,  known  as  the 
gluten  layer.  2.  Gluten  feed  is  ground  corn  grain 
minus  the  starch.  3.  Corn  bran  is  made  up  of  the 
outer  husks  or  coverings  of  the  corn  grain.  4.  Corn 
germ  meal  is  generally  the  ground  corn  germs  with 
more  or  less  of  the  oil  extracted.  5.  Hominy  feed 
and  feed  meal  are  the  by-products  from  the  manufac- 
ture of  hominy  grits  and  starch.  They  vary  in  com- 
position. They  usually  consist  of  the  softer  parts  of 
the  corn  kernel,  and  sometimes  they  contain  corn  bran. 

Milling  By-products. — These  consist  principally  of 
wheat  by-products  and  rice  by-products. 

Wheat  By-products. — Wheat  bran,  wheat  mid- 
dlings and  flour  are  products  derived  from  the  wheat 
kernel,  i.  Wheat  bran.  This  consists  mostly  of 
the  outer  portions  of  the  wheat  kernel.  2.  Wheat 
middlings.  This  material  is  sometimes  called  shorts, 
and  is  made  up  of  the  inner  layers  of  the  outer  cov- 


A    DISSECTED    WHEAT    KERNEL    MAGNIFIED. 

A,  Germ  containing  gluten,  starch,  and  particularly  rich  in  oil  and  mineral  matter; 
B,  starch  cells,  comprising  the  larger  portion  of  the  inner  parts  of  the  kernel;  c,  gluten 
cells,  which  lie  directly  beneath  the  husk,  especially  rich  in  gluten;  d.  inner  coat  of  the 
bran;  e.  coloring  matter  of  the  bran;  F,  G,  outer  coats  of  bran;  H,  epidermis,  or  exterior 
covering  of  the  kernel. 


4o6  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

ering  of  the  wheat  kernel.  3.  Flour.  This  is  made 
from  the  starchy  part  of  the  wheat  kernel,  or  the  soft 
white  interior  portion. 

Rice  By-products. — Rice  hulls,  rice  bran,  rice  meal, 
rice  grits  and  rice  polish  are  the  by-products  obtained 
in  the  milling  of  rice.  i.  Rice  hulls.  These  are  the 
outer  protecting  parts  or  hulls  of  the  rice  kernel. 
They  are  sometimes  injurious  when  fed  in  large  quan- 
tities, on  account  of  their  silicious  or  sandy  structure. 
2.  Rice  bran.  This  material  is  made  up  of  the  outer 
layer  of  the  rice  kernel  together  with  some  of  the 
germ.  Most  of  the  rice  brans  contain  some  rice  hulls. 
The  rice  hulls  cannot  always  be  entirely  eliminated  in 
manufacture.  3.  Rice  meal.  This  material  is  usu- 
ally sold  under  the  name  of  rice  bran.  It  is  similar  to 
rice  bran  except  that  it  is  practically  free  from  hulls. 
4.  Rice  polish.  This  consists  of  the  flour  which  is  re- 
moved from  the  rice  kernel.  The  rice  kernel  is  cor- 
rugated or  rough,  and  in  giving  to  it  the  smooth  ap- 
pearance and  pearly  luster,  that  the  trade  demands, 
the  rough  parts  are  smoothed  down  and  brushed  off 
with  special  machinery. 

Sugar  By-products. — The  sugar  by-products  used  for 
stock  feeds  are  cane  molasses,  beet  molasses,  dried  beet 
pulp  and  sorghum  cuite.  i.  Cane  molasses.  The  cane 
molasses  sold  for  stock  feed  is  usually  the  final  product 
from  the  manufacture  of  cane  sugar.  It  is  called  black- 
strap, and  it  is  noted  for  its  high  content  of  digestible 
carbohydrates.  2.  Beet  molasses.  This  is  a  product 
derived  from  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  the  sugar 
beet.  Beet  molasses  contains  less  carbohydrates  than 
cane  molasses  and  more  ash.  It  has  a  bitter  taste  due 
to  the  large  amount  of  potash  present.  It  is  used  a 
great  deal  for  feeding  purposes.  3.  Dried  beet  pulp. 
This  is  the  refuse,  or  what  is  left,  of  the  sugar  beet 
after  the  sugar  has  been  extracted.  This  refuse  Is 
kiln  dried  and  sold  as  dried  beet  pulp.  4.  Sorghum 
cuite.  This  is  a  product  obtained  from  sorghum,  and 
is  used  to  a  limited  extent. 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING.  407 

Animal  and  Fish  By-Products. — Skim  milk,  refuse 
from  packing  houses  and  fish  refuse  are  often  sold 
as  feeds  for  hogs  and  poultry.  From  the  packing 
houses  come  tankage  and  dried  blood.  Tankage  is 
composed  entirely  of  animal  matter.  It  consists  of 
meat  and  bone  (from  which  the  fat  has  been  ex- 
tracted), and  more  or  less  dried  blood.  It  is  variable 
in  composition,  but  it  usually  contains  a  high  content 
of  protein.  Dried  blood  is  simply  what  the  name  sig- 
nifies. It  has  a  black-brown  color  and  is  ground  very 
fine.  Fish  refuse  is  the  dried  product  from  canneries, 
whalebone  factories,  and  establishments  where  glue  is 
m.anufactured.  The  oil  is  generally  extracted  and 
the  fish  refuse  dried  and  sold  as  fish  scraps  or  dry 
ground  fish. 

ANALYSES  OF  ANIMAL  AND   FISH   BY-PRODUCTS. 

Protein       Fat 

Tankage 46% 

Dried  blood 84 

Meat  scraps 60  9  •  5  % 

Dry  ground  fish 53 

Bone  meal 26 

Meat  and  bone  meal 40  10 

Exercise. — What  milling  by-products  are  used  at  your  home?  De- 
scribe them. 

Choose  four  pupils  to  bring  to  school  all  the  products  mentioned 
in  this  section,  that  are  used  at  the  table.  Flour,  rice,  molasses, 
starch,  grits,  hominy  are  some  of  these  products.  Send  two  pupils 
to  the  feed  store  for  samples  of  wheat  bran,  wheat  middlings,  rice 
bran,  bone  meal,  etc.  Require  the  pupils  to  become  familiar  with  the 
appearance  of  these  materials  and  the  sources  from  which  they  are 
manufactured. 


Sfxtion  LXVI. — Composition,  Digestibility  and 
Nutritive  Ratio. 

Composition  of  Feeds. — The  previous  sections  ex- 
plained the  meaning  and  function  of  the  nutritive  ele- 
ments contained  in  plants  and  animals.  The  next 
thing  is  to  become  familiar  with  the  composition  and 


4o8  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

digestibility  of  feeds.  The  chemist  has  already 
worked  out  these  for  us,  and  he  expresses  the  compo- 
sition as  follows : 

COMPOSITION   OF  CORN   (GRAIN)   IN   PER  CENT. 

Protein  Fat  Nitrogen  Free  Extract        Fiber     Water      Ash 

10.3  5.0  70.4  2.2         10.6         1.5 

The  above  analysis  is  very  simply  translated.  It 
means  that  in  every  100  lbs.  of  corn  grain,  there  are 

10.3  lbs.  of  protein,  5.0  lbs.  of  fat,  70.4  lbs.  of  nitrogen 
free  extract,  2.2  lbs.  of  fiber,  10.6  lbs.  of  water  and 
1.5  lbs.  of  ash.     Or  there  are  10.6  lbs.  of  water  and 

89.4  lbs.  of  dry  matter. 

Digestibility  of  Feeds. — Knowing  the  composition 
of  feeds,  it  is  now  necessary  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  actual  amounts  of  the  nutrients  (protein,  fat,  ni- 
trogen free  extract  and  fiber)  that  the  animal  can 
assimilate  or  digest.  When  food  is  eaten  by  the 
animal  it  is  not  all  digested.  Part  of  it  is  excreted 
as  manure.  This  latter  part,  or  that  which  is  excreted, 
is  indigestible.  We  can  mention  the  digestibility  of 
the  above  sample  of  corn  grain,  which  composition  is 
given,  for  an  example. 

DIGESTIBILITY  OF  CORN   IN   PER  CENT. 

Protein         Fat         Nitrogen  Free  Extract        Fiber 
76  86  93  58 

That  is,  in  100  lbs.  of  the  grain  of  corn,  76  per  cent, 
of  the  10.3  lbs.  of  protein  is  digestible,  86  per  cent,  of 
the  5  lbs.  of  fat  is  digestible,  93  per  cent,  of  the  70.4 
lbs,  of  nitrogen  free  extract  is  digestible,  and  i;S  per 
cent,  of  the  2.2  lbs.  of  fiber  is  digestible.  We  can 
represent  this  in  another  way  by  stating  the  total 
pounds  of  digestible  ingredients  in  100  lbs.  of  corn 
grain. 

TOTAL  POUNDS   DIGESTIBLE   NUTRIENTS  IN   100 
POUNDS   OF  CORN   GRAIN 

Protein         Fat        Nitrogen  Free  Extract        Fiber 
7-8  4.3  65.5  1.3 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING.  409 

The  digestible  fiber  is  generally  added  to  the  digesti- 
ble nitrogen  free  extract  and  called  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates. In  this  case,  then,  the  total  digestible  car- 
bohydrates would  be  65.5  +  1.3  =  66.8  lbs.  As 
mentioned  previously  the  water  is  not  considered  a 
nutrient  as  it  can  be  supplied  so  much  cheaper  by 
itself.  The  ash  is  also  omitted  because  most  of  our 
feeds  contain  enough  of  this  substance  for  the  needs 
of  the  animal. 

Necessity  of  Composition  and  Digestibility. — There 
are  several  feeds  which  have  practically  the  same  chem- 
ical composition  but  different  percentages  of  digesti- 
bility. Then  in  order  to  ascertain  the  real  value  of 
any  feed  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  chemical  compo- 
sition and  the  digestibility. 

Nutritive  Ratio. — The  ratio  between  the  digestible 
protein  and  the  digestible  carbohydrates  +  the  di- 
gestible fats  is  called  the  nutritive  ratio.  This  ratio 
is  obtained  in  the  following  manner.  The  per  cent,  of 
digestible  fat  is  multiplied  by  2.25,  to  reduce  it  to 
terms  of  carbohydrates.  (It  was  previously  stated  in 
Section  LXI,  that  the  fuel  value  of  fat  is  2.25  times 
that  of  carbohydrates.)  This  product  is  then  added 
to  the  per  cent,  of  digestible  carbohydrates.  This  sum 
is  divided  by  the  per  cent,  of  digestible  protein.  To 
explain  this  more  clearly  let  us  take  the  digestibility  of 
corn,  as  just  cited  in  the  article  under  digestibility  of 
feeds. 

Digestible  fat  (^.j,)  X  fuel  value  (2.25)  =  carbohydrate  equivalent  (9.7). 
Digestible  carbohydrates  (66.8)  +  9.7  =  Total  digestible  carbohydrates 

(76.5)- 
Total  digestible  carbohydrates  (76..S)  -^  digestible  protein  (7.8)  =  9.8. 
Nutritive  ratio  is  then  i  :9.8 

Exercise. — What  is  the  per  cent,  digestibility  of  the  ingredients  of 
wheat  bran  ?  The  composition  and  the  digestibility  of  this  feed  are 
given  in  table  No.  i.  What  is  the  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feed  containing 
12.6  per  cent,  digestible  protein,  20  per  cent,  digestible  carbohydrates 
and  5.2  per  cent,  digestible  fat?  If  a  horse  is  fed  7  pounds  of  corn 
and  cob  meal  a  day,  how  many  pounds  of  protein,  fat  and  carbo- 
hydrates does  it  digest? 


4XO 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


TABLE   NO.   I 


AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   AND   AVERAGE   DIGESTIBLE   MATTER 
OF   FEEDING  STUFFS 


FEEDING 
STUFF 


Com  (grain)  or  com 

meal 

Com  and  cob  meal . 

Oats  (grain) 

Wheat  (grain) 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings 

(shorts) 

Cotton  seed 

Cotton-seed  meal  .  . 
Linseed    meal    (new 

process) 

Peanut  meal .... 
Dried  brewers'  gr'ns 
Cowpeas  (seed) . 
Rice      bran      (is% 

hulls) 

Rice  polish 

Rice      meal      (pure 

bran) 

Cane  molasses 

(blackstrap) .  . 
Beet  molasses . . . 
Skimmed  milk 

(gravity) 

Com  silage 

Corn  stover  (whole 

plant  except  ears) 
Cotton-seed  hulls  .  . 

Timothy  hay 

Red  clover  hay .... 
Crimson  clover  hay, 

Alfalfa  hay 

Cowpea  hay 

Soja  bean  hay 

Crab  grass  hay 

Oat  hay(cut  in  milk) 
Kentucky  blue  grass 

hay 

Turnip 

Carrot 

Beet   (Mangel-Wur- 

zel) 

Kaffir  com 


Composition  of  ioo  Lbs. 


10.6 
is-i 

11. 0 

lo.s 
1 1.9 

12. 1 
10.3 

8.2 

10. 1 
10.7 
8.2 
14.8 

9-9 
ii.S 

8.6 

22.4 
20.8 

90.4 
79.1 

22.8 
II. I 
13.2 
15-3 
9.6 
8.4 
II.9 
11.3 
10.3 
IS.O 

21.2 
90.S 
88.6 

90.9 
9-3 


i.S 
i-S 
30 
1.8 
S.8 

3.3 
35 
7.2 

S-8 
4.9 
3.6 
3-2 

1 1.3 
3-5 

8.9 

9.3 
10.6 

0.7 
1.4 

4.9 
2.8 
4.4 
6.2 
8.6 
7.4 
8.4 
7.2 
7-3 
5.2 

6.3 
0.8 
i.o 

I.I 
I.S 


10.3 
8.S 
II. 8 
11.9 
IS.4 

IS.6 
18.4 
42.3 

33-2 
47.6 
19.9 
20.8 

9.9 
II. I 


2.4 
9.1 

3-3 

1.7 

S.S 

4.2 

S.9 

12.3 

15-2 

14-3 
14.4 
IS.4 
6.9 
9.3 

7.8 


1.4 
9.9 


2.2 

6.6 
9-5 
1.8 
9.0 

4.6 

23.2 

5.6 

9.5 

5-1 

ii.o 

4.1 

14-5 
3.8 

8.7 


0.9 


70.4 
64.8 
59.7 
71.9 
53-9 

60.4 
24.7 
23.6 

38.4 
23.7 
51.7 
SS-7 

44-5 
643 

49.8 

6S-9 
59.  S 

4.7 

II.O 

39.9 
33-4 
450 
38.1 


6.0 

25.6 
46.3 
29.0 

24.8  _ 

27.2  36.6 
25.0  42.7 
21.S  41.2 

22.3  38.6 

32.9  41.0 
29.2  39.0 

23.0  37.8 
1.2  '  ' 
1.3 


6.2 
7.6 


5.5 


1.4     74.9 


5.0 
3-5 
5.0 
2.1 
4.0 

4.0 
19.9 
13.1 

3.0 
8.0 
5.6 
1.4 

9.9 
5.8 


0.9 
0.8 

1.3 
2.2 
2.5 
3.3 
2.8 
2.2 
2.5 
5.2 
1.6 
2.3 

3.9 
0.3 
0.4 

0.3 
3.0 


89.4 
84-9 
89.0 
89.S 

88.1 

87.9 
89.7 
91.8 

89.9 
89.3 
91.8 
85.2 

90.1 
88.5 


77.6 
79.2 

9.6 
20.9 

77-2 
88.9 
86.8 
84.7 
90.4 
91.6 
88.1 
88.7 
89.7 
85.0 

78.8 

9.5 

11.4 

I     9.1 
90.7 


Digestible 

Matter  in 

100  Lbs. 


t 

c4 

"O 

>> 

c 

A 

•% 

% 

g 

c« 

(X, 

U 

7.8 

66.7 

4.4 

60.0 

9.2 

47.3 

10.2 

69.2 

12.2 

39.2 

12.8 

53.0 

I2.S 

30.0 

37.2 

16.9 

28.2 

40.1 

42.9 

22.8 

15.7 

36.3 

18.3 

54.2 

6.4 

.36.7 

7.3 

60.4 

8.6 

40.0 

659 

59.5 

3.1 

4.7 

0.9 

11.3 

2.8 

42.3 

0.3 

33- 1 

2.8 

43.4 

6.8 

35.8 

lo.s 

34.9 

II.O 

39-6 

0-3 

.38.3 

10.8 

38.7 

2.2 

42.8 

5.0 

33.0 

4.8 

37.3 

1.0 

7.2 

0.8 

7.8 

I.I 

S.4 

7.8 

S7.I 

4-3 
2.9 
4.2 
1.7 
2.7 

3.4 
17.3 
12.3 

2.8 
6.9 
5-1 
I.I 

5-4 
4-3 


0.8 
0.7 

0.7 
1.7 
1.4 
1-7 
1.3 
1.3 
1.3 
1.5 
0.6 
1.4 

2.0 

0.3 
0.3 

O.I 

3.7 


A  great  deal  of  the  data  in  the  above  table  was  taken  from  Henry,  "Feeds  and 
Feeding."    The  results  in  the  table  are  the  work  of  many  investigators. 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING. 


411 


Section  LXVII. — Feeding  Standards. 

Explanation  of  the  Table. — The  table  on  feeding 
standards  is  divided  into  two  parts  A  and  B.  Table  A 
gives  the  amounts  of  dry  matter,  and  digestible  nutri- 

TABLE   NO.   II 
FEEDING   STANDARDS* 
A. — Per  Day  and  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight 


Oxen  at  rest  in  stall 

Wool  sheep,  coarser  breeds .... 

Wool  sheep,  finer  breeds 

Oxen  moderately  worked 

Oxen  heavily  worked 

Horses  lightly  worked 

Horses  moderately  worked.  .  .  . 

Horses  heavily  worked 

Milk  cows 

Fattening     oxen,     preliminary 

period 

Fattening  oxen,  main  period. . . 
Fattening  oxen,  finishing  period 
Fattening    sheep,     preliminary 

period 

Fattening  sheep,  main  period .  . 
Fattening    swine,     preliminary 

period 

Fattening  swine,  main  period .  . 
Fattening  swine,  finishing  period 


Dry 

Matter 

Protein 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

17. S 

0.7 

20.0 

1.2 

22.5 

i-S 

24.0 

1.6 

26.0 

2.4 

20.0 

i.S 

21.0 

1-7 

23.0 

2.3 

24.0 

2.S 

27.0 

2.S 

26.0 

3.0 

2S.0 

2.7 

26.0 

3.0 

25.0 

3-5 

36.0 

5.0 

31.0 

4.0 

23-5 

2.7 

Digestible 


Carbohy- 
drates 
and  Fat 


Lbs. 
8.3 
10.8 
12.0 
12.0 
14.3 
10.4 
11.8 
14-3 
13.4 

16. 1 
16.4 
16.2 

16.3 
IS.8 

27.S 
24.0 
17-5 


Total 


Lbs. 
9.0 
12.0 
13. S 

13.0 
16.7 
11.9 
13-5 
16.6 
IS.9 

18.6 
19.4 
18.9 

19-3 
19-3 

32. 5 
28.0 
20.2 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 


1:11.9 

1:9.0 

1:8.0 

1:7.5 

1:6.0 

1 :6.9 

1:6.9 

1:6.2 

1:5.4 

1:6.4 
1:5.5 
1 :6.o 

1:5.4 
1:4-5 

1:5.5 
1:6.0 
i:6.s 


B. — Per  Day  and  Per  Head 


Growing  cattle: 

2-  3 ISO  lbs 

3-  6 300 

6-12 500 

12-18 700 

18-24 850 

Growing  sheep: 

5-6 s6 

6-8 67 

8-11 75 

11-15 82 

15-20 8s 

Growing  fat  swine: 

2-3 SO 

3-  5 100 

5-  6 I2S 

6-  8 170 

8-12 250 


bs. 

3.3 

0.6 

7.0 

I.O 

12.0 

1-3 

16.8 

1.4 

20.4 

1.4 

1.6 

0.18 

1-7 

0.18 

1-7 

0.16 

1.8 

0.14 

1.9 

0.12 

2.1 

0.38 

3.4 

0.50 

3.9 

0.54 

4.6 

o.s8 

5.2 

0.62 

2.8 

4.9 

7-5 
9-7 
II. I 

0.974 
0.981 
0.953 
0.975 
0.955 

I. SO 
2. so 
2.96 
3-47 
4-05 


3-4 

5.9 

8.8 
II. I 
12.S 

1. 154 
1. 161 
1. 113 
1. 115 
I.07S 

1.88 
3.00 
3.50 
4-05 
4.67 


1:4.6 
1:4.9 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:5.4 
1:5.4 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1 :4.o' 
1:5.0 
1:5.5 
1:6.0 
i:6.S 


*La.  Exp.  Station,  Bui.  No.  115. 


412 


FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 


ents  required  per  day  for  farm  animals  under  all  con- 
ditions of  work  and  rest.  This  table  is  based  on 
i,ooo  lbs.  live  weight.  Table  B  is  similar  to  Table  A, 
except  that  the  standards  are  based  on  the  weights  of 
the  animals  as  mentioned.  To  make  this  clearer  the 
first  standard  in  Table  A  is  for  "  oxen  at  rest  in  stall." 
The  standard  reads  17.5  lbs.  dry  matter,  0.7  lbs.  pro- 
tein, 8.3  lbs.  carbohydrates  and  fat,  9.0  lbs.  total,  with 
a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :i  1.9.  This  standard  is  for  oxen 
weighing  1,000  lbs.  at  rest  in  the  stall.  The  first 
standard  in  Table  B  is  for  "  growing  cattle  2-3  months 
old  weighing  150  lbs."  The  standard  reads  3.3  lbs. 
dry  matter,  0.6  lbs.  protein,  2.8  lbs.  carbohydrates  and 
fat,  3.4  lbs.  total,  with  a  nutritive  ratio  of  i  '.4.6.  This 
standard  is  figured  on  growing  cattle  weighing  150 
lbs. 

Practical  Use  of  Feeding  Standards. — It  must  be 
remembered  that  the  dry  matter  is  given  in  this  table 
to  regulate  the  bulk  of  a  ration.  In  compounding 
rations  it  is  not  necessary  to  have  the  dry  matter  ex- 
act, and  a  variation  of  a  few  pounds  does  not  affect 
the  value  of  a  ration.  In  feeding  farm  animals  no 
other  food  should  be  allowed  them  except  what  is  in- 
cluded in  the  ration.     Animals  will  eat  a  great  deal 


HOGS   IN   A   FEED   LOT. 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING.  413 

more  than  is  good  for  them  if  they  are  allowed  to 
eat  all  the  feed  they  wish.  Most  of  our  feeders  per- 
mit farm  animals  to  eat  all  the  hay  they  want.  This 
is  bad  practice.  These  feeding  standards  are  not  al- 
ways absolutely  correct  for  every  individual  animal. 
These  standards  are  the  results  of  many  experiments 
and  practical  experience.  By  compounding  rations 
according  to  these  standards,  as  laid  down  in  this  table, 
the  results  are  bound  to  meet  with  satisfaction.  There 
are  many  people  who  feed  farm  animals  in  an  off-hand 
way,  and  there  is  a  great  chance  for  improvement  in 
this  phase  of  agriculture. 

Selection  of  the  Feed. — In  selecting  a  ration  for 
farm  stock  it  is  important  to  consider  palatability  and 
adaptability.  The  ration  should  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  particular  animal  or  animals.  The 
market  prices  of  feeds  should  also  be  taken  into  ac- 
count. 

Palatability. — No  matter  what  the  composition  of  a 
feed  is,  it  must  be  sweet,  clean  and  possess  an  agree- 
able flavor.  Animals,  like  people,  do  not  get  along 
well  on  food  that  is  not  palatable. 

Adaptability. — Poultry  and  hogs  are  fond  of  cotton- 
seed meal.  This  feed  often  makes  them  sick.  Horses 
and  hogs  are  so  constructed  that  they  cannot  do  well 
on  a  large  amount  of  roughage.  Roughage  includes 
materials  such  as  hays,  corn  stover  and  cotton-seed 
hulls.  Certain  feeds  cannot  be  allowed  to  milch  cows, 
because  they  produce  a  bad  flavor  in  the  milk. 

Market  Prices. — In  making  up  a  ration  it  is  neces- 
sary to  not  only  consider  the  nutritive  ratio,  palata- 
bility and  adaptability,  but  the  available  feeds  and  their 
prices  must  be  investigated.  In  other  words  the  cost 
of  a  ration  should  be  figured.  Oftentimes  the  same 
amounts  of  digestible  nutrients  can  be  supplied  from 
other  feeds  and  at  a  cheaper  price.  Oats,  for  exam- 
ple, is  an  expensive  feed.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  sub- 
stitute other  feeds  that  will  furnish  the  same  amounts 
of  digestible  ingredients  as  oats  at  a  less  cost.     Tim- 


414 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


othy  hay,  in  the  South,  is  generally  an  expensive  feed. 
It  is  sometimes  a  better  financial  proposition  to  sell 
some  of  the  feed  stuffs  raised  on  the  farm  and  pur- 
chase other  feeds  for  consumption. 

Weights  and  Measures. — This  table  is  given  to 
enable  the  feeder  to  compound  rations  easily.  In 
making  rations  for  animals  large  amounts  of  the  grain 
portion  can  be  mixed  at  one  time.  This  saves  the 
trouble  of  mixing  and  calculating  at  every  feeding. 
The  measure  of  roots,  molasses,  hay,  fodder  and  en- 
silage can  be  determined  once  and  fed  accordingly 
without  any  inconvenience. 


WEIGHT  AND   MEASURE   OF   FEED  STUFFS 

Feed                                 One  quart  One  pound 

weighs  measures 

Cotton-seed  meal 1.5  lbs.  0.7  qts. 

Brewers'  grains  (dried) 0.6    "  1.7 

Wheat  middlings  (flour) 1.2     "  0.8 

Wheat  middlings  (standard) 0.8    "  1.3 

Wheat  mixed  feed 0.6    "  1.7 

Wheat  bran 0.5    "  2.0 

Whole  oats i.o    "  i.o 

Ground  oats 0.7    "  1.4 

Whole  wheat 1.9    "  0.5 

Ground  wheat 1.7    "  0.6 

Whole  corn 1.7    "  0.6 

Corn  meal 1.5    "  0.7 

Corn  and  cob  meal 1.4    "  0.7 

Corn  bran 0.5    "  2.0 

Hominy  meal i.i    "  0.9 

Corn  and  oat  feed  (Victor) o-7    "  1-4 

Whole  barley 1.5    "  0.7 

Barley  meal i.i     "  0.9 

Whole  rye 1.7    "  0.6 

Rye  meal 1.5    "  0.7 

Rice  bran 0.8    "  1.3 

Rice  polish 1.2    "  0.8 

Cotton-seed  hulls 0.26  "  3.8 

Alfalfa  meal 1.0    "  1.0 

Molasses  (blackstrap) 3.0    "  0.3 

Much  of  the  data  in  the  above  table  was  compiled  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts Experiment  Station. 

Exercise. — Weigh  pint  measures  of  flour,  corn  meal,  corn,  rice, 

and  any  other  feeds  that  you  may  have  at  home.  Put  the  weights 
obtained  in  your  note  book.  What  are  the  market  prices  of  five 
common  feeds  used  in  your  town? 


feeds  and  feeding.  41s 

Section  LXVIII. — Rations. 

Trial  Ration. — Referring  to  Tables  i  and  2,  and 
knowing  the  meaning  of  the  terms  as  set  forth  in  the 
preceding  pages  under  Feeds  and  Feeding,  it  will  now 
be  a  simple  matter  of  arithmetic  and  judgment  to 
compute  or  balance  any  ration.  Let  us  suppose,  for 
example,  that  we  have  a  horse  or  a  mule  at  home 
plowing.  Plowing  all  day  is  hard  or  heavy  work. 
Now  if  we  turn  to  Table  No.  2  we  find  that  the  stand- 
ard for  a  horse  weighing  1,000  lbs.  heavily  worked  is 
as  follows : 

Digestible  Nutritive 

Dry  Matter      Digestible  Protein     Carbohydrates  and  Fat      Ratio 
23  lbs.  2.3  lbs.  14.3  lbs.  1:6.2 

This  means  that  if  our  horse  at  home  doing  heavy 
work  weighs  1,000  lbs.  he  will  require  23  lbs.  of  dry 
matter,  2.3  lbs.  of  digestible  protein,  and  14.3  lbs.  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  to  satisfy  his  needs  for  a  day 
of  twenty-four  hours.  The  digestible  carbohydrates 
includes  the  digestible  nitrogen  free  extract,  digestible 
fats  and  digestible  fiber. 

Let  us  suppose  we  have  the  following  feed  stuffs  at 
home:  cotton-seed  meal,  corn  (shelled),  wheat  bran 
and  timothy  hay.  To  figure  our  ration  let  us  try  2 
lbs.  of  cotton-seed  meal,  6  lbs.  of  shelled  corn,  6  lbs. 
of  wheat  bran  and  10  lbs.  of  timothy  hay.  We  must 
now  find  the  total  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  diges- 
tible carbohydrates  and  fat,  in  each  of  the  above  feeds 
that  make  up  our  ration.  Referring  to  Table  i  we 
find  that  100  lbs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  contain  91.8  lbs. 
dry  matter,  37.2  lbs.  of  digestible  protein,  16.9  lbs.  of 
digestible  carbohydrates  and  12.2  lbs.  of  digestible 
fat.  Then  as  2  lbs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  are  Included 
in  our  trial  ration  we  get  the  amounts  of  digestible 
nutrients  as  stated. 

2  lbs.  X  .918  =  1.836  lbs.  of  dry  matter. 

2  lbs.  X  .372  =  0.744  lbs.  of  digestible  protein. 

2  lbs.  X  .169  =  0.338  lbs.  of  digestible  carbohydrates. 

2  lbs.  X  .122  =  0.244  lbs.  of  digestible  fat. 


4i6 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


In  the  same  way  we  arrive  at  the  digestible  amounts 
contained  in  6  lbs.  of  shelled  corn,  6  lbs.  of  wheat  bran 
and  lo  lbs.  of  timothy  hay.  Then  we  add  together  the 
dry  matter  and  digestible  ingredients  in  the  cotton-seed 
meal,  shelled  corn,  wheat  bran  and  timothy  hay  and 
compare  it  with  the  standard. 

Digestible       Digestible      Digestible 


Dry  Matter 

Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

2  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal       i .  836 

•744 

■338 

.244 

6  lbs.  shelled  corn ....       5 .  364 

.468 

4.002 

.258 

6  lbs.  wheat  bran 5  286 

•732 

2.352 

.162 

10  lbs.  timothy  hay. .  .       8 .  680 

.280 

4  340 

.140 

24  lbs.     Total 21.166         2.224  11.032  .804 

To  reduce  our  fat  to  terms  of  carbohydrates  we 
must  multiply  by  2.25.  .804X2.25  =  1.809.  11.032 
+  1.809  =  12.841  lbs.  total  digestible  carbohydrates. 
12.841  (total  digestible  carbohydrates)  -f-  2.224  (di- 
gestible protein)  =  5.8.  That  is,  the  nutritive  ratio 
is  I  15. 8.     This  trial  ration  is  stated  as  follows: 

Digestible  Digestible  Nutritive 

Dry  Matter      Protein  Carbohydrates      Ratio 

Ration 21.166           2.224  12.841             1:5 -8 

Standard 23 .  000           2 .  300  14 .  300            i  :6 . 2 

Balancing  the  Ration. — This  trial  ration  is  not  en- 
tirely satisfactory.     It  is  almost  correct  for  dry  matter 


ALFALFA    FIELD    WITH    HAY   CAPS. 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING.  4^7 

and  near  enough  to  the  standard  in  protein.  It  is  too 
low  in  carbohydrates.  We  must  correct  the  ration  to 
make  it  more  nearly  approximate  the  standard.  Let 
us  add  3  lbs.  of  timothy  hay  and  see  what  effect  it  has 
on  balancing  the  ration. 

Digestible  Digestible  Digestible 

Dry  Matter  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 
2    lbs.    cotton-seed 

meal 1.836  .744  .338  .244 

6  lbs.  shelled  corn. .         5364  .468  4.002  .258 

6  lbs.  wheat  bran . .         5 .  286  .732  2 .  352  .  162 

1 3  lbs.  timothy  hay       1 1 .  284  .  364  5  ■  642  . 1 82 

27  lbs.     Total 23.770  2.308  12.334  .846 

The  ration  as  it  now  stands: 

Digestible  Digestible  Nutritive 

Dry  Matter      Protein  Carbohydrates      Ratio 

Ration 23.77              2.31  1424              1:6.2 

Standard 23                    2.3  14.3                1:6.2 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  get  the  exact  amounts 
as  laid  down  in  the  standard.  The  above  ration  is 
perhaps  nearer  the  standard  than  one  will  ordinarily 
approximate. 

Rations  for  Animals  Weighing  More  or  Less  than 
a  1,000  lbs. — If  animals  weigh  more  or  less  than  a 
1,000  lbs.  it  is  necessary  to  increase  or  decrease  the 
amounts  of  the  feed  proportionately.  The  nutritive 
ratio,  however,  should  remain  the  same.  In  the  above 
example  suppose  the  horse  weighs  1,200  lbs.,  then  we 
would  increase  the  amounts  of  feed  one-fifth.  That 
is,  instead  of  feeding  2  lbs.  of  cotton-seed  meal,  6  lbs. 
of  shelled  corn,  6  lbs.  of  wheat  bran  and  13  lbs.  of 
timothy  hay,  we  would  feed  2.4  lbs.  of  cotton-seed 
meal,  7.2  lbs.  of  shelled  corn,  7.2  lbs.  of  wheat  bran 
and  15.6  lbs.  of  timothy  hay.  If  the  animal  weighed 
less  than  1,000  lbs.  the  ration  should  be  proportion- 
ately reduced.  Sometimes  the  individuality  of  the 
animal  must  be  considered.  Dairy  cattle  weighing 
700  lbs.,  giving  25  lbs.  of  milk  need  more  feed  than 


4i8 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 


dairy  cattle  weighing  the  same,  but  only  giving  20  lbs. 
of  milk. 

Exercise. — How  many  pounds  of  timothy  hay  are  required  to 
balance  a  ration  for  a  horse  weighing  1,100  pounds,  doing  moderate 
work,  when  the  following  are  the  feeds  already  included :  2  lbs. 
cotton-seed  meal,  8  lbs.  oats,  and  5  lbs.  shelled  corn? 


Section  LXIX. — Terms  of  a  Nutritive  Ratio. 

Narrow,  wide  and  medium  are  the  terms  applied  to 
nutritive  ratios. 

Narrow  Ration. — A  narrow  ration  is  one  in  which 
the  proportion  of  protein  is  large  as  compared  to  the 
carbohydrates.  A  ration  having  a  nutritive  ratio  less 
than  1 15.5  is  considered  narrow. 

A   NARROW  ration 

Digestible  Digestible      Digestible 

Dry  Matter  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 
3  lbs.  cotton-seed 

meal 2.754  1.116  .507  .366 

10  lbs.  wheat  bran.          8.810  1.220  3.920  .270 
15  lbs.  crimson  clo- 
ver hay 13-560  1.575  5235  .180 

28  lbs.     Total 25.124  3. 911  9.662  t8i6 

Nutritive  Ratio,  1 12.9 

The  protein  in  the  above  ration  is  high  as  compared 
to  the  carbohydrates.     Nitrogenous  ration  is  another 


i^^-'^WS^  ^ 


HERD   OF   PURE-BRED   HOLSTEINS,  WHICH   REQUIRE   A   NARROW   RATION. 

name  sometimes  applied  to  a  narrow  ration,  because  of 

the  predominance  of  nitrogenous  substances  (protein). 

Wide  Ration. — A  wide  nutritive  ratio  is  one  where 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING. 


419 


the  proportion  of  carbohydrates  is  large  as  compared 
to  the  protein.  Such  a  ration  has  a  nutritive  ratio 
of  more  than  i  :8.o. 


SADDLE  HORSE,  A  MODERATE  WORKED  ANIMAL,  REQUIRES  A  WIDE  RATION. 

A  WIDE  RATION 

Digestible  Digestible  Digestible 

Dry  Matter      Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 

5lbs.  oats 4450               460  2.365  .210 

10  lbs.  corn  and  cob 

meal 8 .  490              .  440  6 .  000  .  290 

15  lbs.  timothy  hay       13.020              .420  6.510  .210 

30  lbs.    Total 25.960  1.320  14-875  -710 

Nutritive  ratio,  1:125. 

This  style  of  ration  is  sometimes  called  a  carbona- 
ceous ration  on  account  of  the  high  proportion  of 
carbohydrates.  Protein  contains  carbonaceous  sub- 
stances; therefore  this  term  is  incorrectly  used  in  wide 
rations. 


420  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Medium  Ration. — A  ration  with  a  nutritive  ratio 
between  i  :5.5  and  i  :8.o  is  called  a  medium  ration. 

A  MEDIUM   RATION 

Digestible  Digestible      Digestible 
Dry  Matter      Protein  Carbohydrates        Fat 
3  lbs.  dried  brew- 
ers'grains 2.754              -471  1.089  -153 

6  lbs.  wheat  mid- 
dlings          5  274              .768  3- 180  .204 

15  lbs.  corn  stover.        11.580              .420  6.345  105 

5  lbs.  alfalfa  hay. .         4 .  580              .  550  i .  980  .  060 

29  lbs.     Total 24.188  2.209  12.594  -522 

Nutritive  ratio,  i  :6.2 

Amounts  of  Protein  and  Carbohydrates  for  Feed- 
ing.— I.  Young  animals  and  dairy  cows.  In  feeding 
young  stock  it  is  necessary  to  supply  a  ration  that  will 
build  up  and  enable  them  to  put  on  flesh.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  from  the  dairy  cow  it  is  also  important 
that  the  ration  be  such  as  to  produce  a  good  flow  of 
milk.  In  other  words  a  narrow  ration  is  necessary 
for  young  growing  animals  and  dairy  cows.  2.  Fat- 
tening animals.  Rations  containing  relatively  large 
amounts  of  carbohydrates  are  required  for  laying  on 
fat.  As  previously  stated  the  carbohydrates  are 
changed  into  fat  in  the  process  of  digestion.  There- 
fore a  wide  ration  is  the  proper  one  to  feed  for  fat- 
tening animals.  Animals  doing  little  or  no  work 
should  also  receive  fairly  wide  rations.  They  do  not 
expend  much  energy,  and  must  simply  be  kept  in  con- 
dition. 3.  Hardworking  mature  animals.  A  me- 
dium ration  has  been  found  to  be  the  best  for  this  class 
of  stock. 

Exercise. — Choose  some  feeds  common  to  your  section  and  com- 
pute narrow,  wide  and  medium  rations. 


Section  LXX. — How  to  Improve  a  Ration. 

A  Common  Ration. — A  herd  of  dairy  cows  is  re- 
ceiving the  following  ration  per  day  of  twenty-four 
hours,  per  1,000  lbs.  live  weight:  5  lbs.  cotton-seed 


FEEDS   AND    FEEDING.        .  421 

meal,  3  lbs.  wheat  bran,  10  lbs.  red  clover  hay  and  15 
lbs.  corn  stover.  Let  us  figure  this  ration  and  find  out 
if  it  is  properly  balanced  for  the  herd  of  dairy  cows. 
Turn  to  Table  i  and  find  that  the  following  amounts 
of  digestible  ingredients  are  present  in  100  lbs.  of  each 
feed  stuff. 

Dry  Matter  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 

lbs  lbs.                   lbs.  lbs. 

Cotton-seed  meal. .         91.8  37.2                 16.9  12.2 

Wheat  bran 88.1  12.2                 39-2  2.7 

Red  clover  hay ....         84 . 7  6.8                35.8  1.7 

Corn  stover 77-2  2.8                42  3  0.7 

Then  as  5  lbs.  of  cotton-seed  meal  are  in  the  ration, 
we  multiply  the  amounts  of  dry  matter,  digestible  pro- 
tein, digestible  carbohydrates,  and  digestible  fat  as 
given  above  for  cotton-seed  meal,  by  5.  Or  5  x  .918 
=  4.590  lbs.  of  dry  matter  in  5  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal. 
5  X  .372  =  1.860  lbs.  digestible  protein  in  5  lbs.  cotton- 
seed meal.  5  x  .169  =^  .845  lbs.  digestible  carbo- 
hydrates in  5  lbs.  cotton-seed  meal.  5  x  .122  =  .610 
lbs.  of  digestible  fat  in  5  lbs.  of  cotton-seed  meal.  In 
the  same  way  we  compute  the  digestible  ingredients  In 
the  wheat  bran,  red  clover  hay  and  corn  stover. 

Digestible  Digestible      Digestible 

Dry  Matter  Protein  Carbohydrates  Fat 
5  lbs.  cotton  -  seed 

meal 4  590  1.860  .845  .610 

3  lbs.  wheat  bran .         2.643  0.366  1.176  .081 
10  lbs.  red  clover 

hay 8.470  0.680  3580  .170 

1 5  lbs.  corn  stover .        1 1 .  580  o .  420  6 .  345  . 1 05 

33  lbs.     Total 27.283  3  326  11.946  .966 

With  the  fat  reduced  to  carbohydrates  the  ration 
reads : 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Ration 27.283  3326  14. 1 195  1:4.2 

Standard 24  2.5  13.4  1:5.4 

The  ration  Is  too  high  In  dry  matter,  digestible  pro- 
tein and  digestible  carbohydrates.  The  ration  is  also 
too  narrow. 


422  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Improving  the  Ration. — Let  us  try  to  improve  this 
ration  by  supplying  less  of  the  ingredients  and  par- 
ticularly less  protein.  By  consulting  Table  i  we  can 
see  that  cotton-seed  meal  has  more  digestible  protein 
then  we  reduce  our  amount  of  cotton-seed  meal  to  3 
then  we  reduce  our  amount  of  cotton  seed  meal  to  3 
lbs.     Then  our  ration  will  be  as  follows : 

Digestible  Digestible      Digestible 

Dry  Matter  Protein  Carbohydrates        Fat 
3  lbs.  cotton  -  seed 

meal 2.754  1.116  0507  .366 

3  lbs.  wheat  bran .          2  .  643  .  366  i .  176  .081 
10  lbs.    red    clover 

hay 8.470  .680  3  580  .170 

1 5  lbs.  corn  stover .        11. 580  .  420  6 .  345  .  105 


31  lbs.     Total 25.447  2.582  11.608  .722 

Nutritive 
Ratio 
Improved  ration .. .       25.447  2.582  13.232  1:5.1 

Standard 24  2.5  13.4  i:5-4 

The  ration  as  it  now  stands  approximates  the  stand- 
ard. It  is  close  enough  to  the  standard  for  all  prac- 
tical purposes. 

Exercise. — Find  out  from  your  parents,  or  some  of  your  neighbors, 
the  rations  they  are  feeding.  Choose  one  of  them  and  improve  it. 
Of  course  the  kind  of  animal  must  be  considered  in  the  calculation  of 
the  ration. 

Section  LXXI. — How  to  Reduce  the  Cost  of  a 

Ration. 

John  Smith  has  a  large  farm,  and  he  is  feeding  his 
fifteen  horses,  who  are  doing  hard  work,  the  follow- 
ing ration : 

Digestible       Digestible      Digestible 
Dry  Matter      Protein     Carbohydrates        Fat 

8  lbs.  oats 7.120  .736  3  784  0.336 

4  lbs.  shelled  corn .         3. 576  .312  2.668  0.172 

6  lbs.  wheat  bran .  5- 286  .732  2.352  0.162 

10  lbs.  timothy  hay         8.680  .280  4  340  0.140 

28  lbs.     Total 24.662  2.060  13- 144  0.810 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Ration 24.662  2.060  14-97  1:7.2 

Standard 23  2.3  14.3  1:6.2 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING.  423 

Cost  of  the  Ration. — Let  us  learn  what  it  is  costing 
John  Smith  to  feed  his  horses.  The  following  are  the 
market  prices  of  some  of  the  feeds  which  are  available 
to  John  Smith: 

Per  Ton  of  2,000  lbs. 

Oats $35 

Shelled  corn 28 

Wheat  bran 25 

Timothy  hay 18 

Crab  grass  hay 15 

Cotton-seed  meal 26 

Corn  and  cob  meal 22 

Oats  cost  $35  per  ton  of  2,000  lbs.  One  pound  of 
oats  costs  $0.0175.  Then  8  lbs.  will  cost  8  x  .0175  = 
$0.14.  In  a  similar  way  the  prices  of  the  shelled  corn, 
wheat  bran  and  timothy  hay  are  calculated. 

8  lbs.  oats $0.14 

4  lbs.  shelled  corn o .  056 

6  lbs.  wheat  bran o .  075 

10  lbs.  timothy  hay o .  090 

Total  cost  per  ration =  $0 .  361 

It  is  costing  John  Smith  $0,361  per  day  per  horse. 
Or  it  is  costing  him  15  x  $0,361  =  $5,415  for  his  fif- 
teen horses  per  day.  We  will  now  substitute  some 
other  feeds  and  see  if  we  cannot  reduce  John  Smith's 
feed  bill. 

A  Cheaper  Ration. — Oats,  shelled  corn  and  timothy 
hay  are  the  expensive  feeds  in  this  ration,  considering 
the  nutrients  they  furnish.  By  perusing  Table  i  we 
find  that  cotton-seed  meal  contains  a  high  percentage 
of  digestible  protein.  We  can  substitute  this  feed  for 
oats.  Shelled  corn  and  corn  and  cob  meal  contain 
about  the  same  amounts  of  dry  matter  and  carbohy- 
drates, so  we  will  substitute  corn  and  cob  meal  for  the 
shelled  corn.  The  shelled  corn  is  richer  in  protein 
than  the  corn  and  cob  meal,  but  we  can  get  this  ingre- 
dient cheaper  from  our  wheat  bran.  The  crab  grass 
hay  is  of  about  the  same  nutritive  value  as  timothy 


424 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


A   MEADOW   OF   TIMOTHY,    AN   EXPENSIVE    ROUGHAGE   TO   PURCHASE. 

hay.     It  is  also  cheaper,  so  we  will  use  crab  grass  hay. 
A  balanced  ration  from  these  feeds  would  be  as  stated. 

Digestible       Digestible      Digestible 
Dry  Matter      Protein     Carbohydrates        Fat 
2  lbs.  cotton  -  seed 

meal 1 .  836  .  744  o .  338  .  244 

7  lbs.  corn  and  cob 

meal 5 .  943  .  308  4 .  200  .  203 

8  lbs.  wheat  bran .         7048  .976  3136  .216 
12  lbs.    crab    grass 

hay 10.764  .264  5  136  .072 

29  lbs.     Total 25.591  2.292  12.810  .735 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Ration 25.591  2.292  14464  1:6.3 

Standard 23  2.3  14.3  1:6.2 

Compared  to  the  Standard. — This  ration  is  better 
than  the  one  John  Smith  is  feeding.  It  comes  nearer 
the  standard.  The  dry  matter  and  carbohydrates  in 
John  Smith's  ration  approximate  the  standard,  but  the 
protein  is  too  low.  His  ration  is  too  wide.  The  dry 
matter  in  this  second  ration  is  a  little  high,  but  animals 
can  take  care  of  an  excess  of  dry  matter.  The  protein 
and  carbohydrates   in  the   balanced   ration   are   very 


FEEDS   AND    FEEDING.  425 

close  to  the  standard.     The  nutritive  ratio  very  closely 
approximates  the  standard  nutritive  ratio. 

At  the  market  prices  the  new  ration  will  cost: 

2  lbs.  cotton  seed  meal $.  026 

7  lbs.  corn  and  cob  meal 077 

8  lbs.  wheat  bran 100 

12  lbs.  crab  grass  hay 090 

Total  cost  per  ration $293 

In  other  words  this  ration  will  cost  John  Smith 
$0,293  P^^  ^^y  P^^*  horse.  ■  The  ration  of  John 
Smith's  costs  $0,361  per  day  per  horse.  This  new 
ration  will  save  John  Smith  $0.361 — $0,293^  $0,068 
per  day  per  horse.  On  fifteen  horses  the  saving  will 
be  15  X  $.068  =--  $1.02  per  day.  In  a  year  the  saving 
will  amount  to  365  x  $1.02  =  $372.30.  This  exam- 
ple just  cited  is  not  exceptional.  There  are  many 
farmers,  livery  men  and  others  who  are  throwing  away 
money  every  day  on  their  feed  bills,  and  still  they  are 
not  always  getting  the  best  returns.  This  second  ra- 
tion, as  it  more  closely  approximates  the  standard,  is 
indeed  a  better  one,  besides  being  cheaper. 

Exercise. — Learn  from  your  people  or  some  acquaintance  the 
rations  used.  Select  one  of  these  rations ;  find  out  the  cost  of  the 
feeds  that  are  used  and  try  to  substitute  some  other  feeds  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  the  ration.  Is  the  ration  you  figured  out  better  than  the 
original  one  ?    What  is  the  saving  in  your  ration  ? 


Section  LXXII. — Feeds  for  Farm  Animals. 

Feeds  for  the  Horse. — Most  horses  and  mules  are 
working  animals.  They  need  materials  to  produce 
energy,  and  repair  the  wastes  of  the  broken  down  tis- 
sues. Oats,  wheat  products,  corn,  dried  brewers' 
grains,  barley,  rice  meal,  rice  polish,  and  cotton-seed 
meal  are  some  of  the  more  concentrated  feed  stuffs 
which  are  fed  to  horses  and  mules.  The  roughage 
used  generally  consist  of  hays,  roots  and  silage.  It 
is  advisable  not  to  include  more  than  2  lbs.  of  cotton 


426 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


seed  meal  in  any  ration  for  the  horse  or  mule.  Hays 
should  not  constitute  more  than  12  to  15  pounds  of 
the  ration.     Most  horses  are  allowed  too  much  hay. 


MULES — A   TYPE    OF    HARU-WORKING   ANIMAL. 


The  stomach  of  a  horse  or  mule  is  small,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  permitting  a  horse  to  eat  all  the  hay  he  wishes 
is  entirely  wrong.  We  should  aim  to  feed  10  to  12 
pounds  of  roughage,  and  supply  the  balance  of  the  ra- 
tion with  concentrates. 

Feeds  for  Cattle. — In  feeding  cattle  we  must  con- 
sider rations  for  milch  cows  and  for  fattening  cattle. 

I.  Milch  cows.  Rations  for  cows  giving  milk 
should  predominate  in  protein  substances.  The  ration 
should  be  narrow.  It  should  supply  substances  for 
milk  production,  and  for  the  general  repair  and  energy 
needed  in  the  maintenance  of  the  animal  body.  Some 
of  the  feeding  stuffs  fed  with  success  to  dairy  cows  are 
cotton-seed  meal,  linseed  meal,  dried  brewers'  grains, 
malt  sprouts,  distillers'  grains,  gluten  feed  and  gluten 
meal.  These  feeds  are  highly  nitrogenous.  Corn 
and  wheat  products  are  often  fed.  For  roughage,  cot- 
ton-seed hulls,  roots,  silage  and  hays  are  good.  Cat- 
tle can  take  care  of  a  larger  amount  of  roughage  than 


FEEDS   AND    FEEDING. 


427 


horses.  Molasses  is  sometimes  used  with  good  re- 
sults for  furnishing  some  of  the  carbohydrates.  A 
ration  for  the  dairy  cow  should  contain  at  least  three 
kinds  of  feeds.  A  variety  of  materials  in  a  ration, 
gives  better  results  than  a  ration  made  up  of  two  feeds, 
provided  the  ration  is  properly  balanced.  Most 
grains  and  their  by-products  can  be  used  in  feeding 
dairy  cows.     It  is  important  to  use  only  those  feeds 


FATTENING  CATTLE   REQUIRE  LITTLE   PROTEIN. 

which  meet  the   requirements   of  the  dairy  cow   and 
which  can  be  fed  at  a  profit. 

2.  Fattening  cattle.  This  class  of  animals  requires 
food  that  will  help  to  form  fat.  They  must  have  ra- 
tions containing  a  large  proportion  of  carbohydrates. 
They  need  only  enough  protein  substances  to  keep  the 
animal  body  in  good  condition.  The  amount  of  pro- 
tein required  is  very  small.  Easily  digestible  feeds 
should  compose  the  ration.  Cotton-seed  meal,  cot- 
ton-seed hulls,  roots,  hays,  wheat  by-products,  rice 
bran,  rice  polish,  corn  and  its  by-products  are  accepta- 


428 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


ble    feeds    for    fattening    cattle.     Large    amounts    of 
rough    fodders    should    be    avoided.      Jordan    in    his 

book,  "  The  Feeding  of 
Animals,"  says,  "  that 
under  proper  conditions 
8  to  I o. pounds  of  dry, 
coarse  food  and  15  to 
18  pounds  of  grain  is 
all  that  can  generally  be 
fed  with  greatest  profit 
to  a  steer  weighing  1,000 
pounds,  and  may  be  even 
more  than  is  utilized  by 
the  animal  to  the  best 
advantage." 

Fattening  Sheep. — 
Sheep  which  are  being 
prepared  for  the  market 
require  a  ration  rich  in 
carbohydrates.  They 
need  a  wide  ration.  Most 
of  our  feed  stuffs  are  suit- 
able. Corn,  oats,  wheat 
bran,  cotton-seed  meal, 
silage,  roots,  and  the  le- 
guminous hays  (alfalfa, 
lespedeza,  cowpea, 
vetches,  soya  bean,  etc.) 
are  very  acceptable.  A 
ration  made  up  of  two  or 
three  grains  is  better  than 
one  containing  a  single 
grain.  The  rations  for 
sheep  vary  according  to 
the  age  of  the  animal. 
Fattening  Swine. — Swine  are  generally  fed  the  waste 
food  of  the  farm.  This  usually  includes  the  wastes 
from  the  dairy  and  the  kitchen.  A  ration  composed 
of  skim  milk  and  grain  is  a  good  combination  for  pigs. 


INNER    VIEW     BEEF    SIDE.       PRO- 
DUCED BY   A  WIDE   RATION. 


FEEDS    AND   FEEDING.  429 

For  young  pigs  the  ration  should  be  made  up  mostly  of 
milk  with  a  little  grain.  For  older  animals  the  grain 
part  of  the  ration  can  be  increased.  Skim  milk,  corn 
meal  and  wheat  shorts  is  a  good  milk  and  grain  com- 
bination. Cotton-seed  meal  should  not  be  fed,  as  it 
makes  pigs  sick.  Corn,  wheat  middlings,  rice  polish, 
dried  brewers'  grains,  oats,  molasses,  peanuts,  rape, 
sorghum,  clover,  tankage  and  alfalfa  are  all  good 
feeds  for  hogs.  Hogs  which  are  kept  in  pens  should 
receive  wood  ashes,  or  ground  bone  to  furnish  the  min- 
eral constituents  necessary  to  build  up  the  bones. 

Feeding  Young  Animals. — Young  animals  should 
be  allowed  their  mothers'  milk  and  gradually  permitted 
the  access  of  a  little  grain  and  roughage.  The  moth- 
ers should  in  all  cases  be  fed  rations  that  will  tend  to 
produce  milk.  When  the  young  stock  have  been  on 
their  mothers'  milk  for  about  a  week  a  little  grain 
should  be  given  them.  Grain  should  be  fed  in  very 
small  quantities  at  first.  When  the  young  animals  are 
kept  in  the  barn  they  should  receive  only  very  small 
quantities  of  roughage,  until  their  digestive  organs 
become  developed.  If  too  much  roughage  is  per- 
mitted, the  animals  get  sick.  When  they  are  in  good 
pasture  it  is  not  necessary  to  supply  roughage.  The 
roughage  should  include  pasturage  or  a  small  amount 
of  good  hay  such  as  leguminous  hay.  Wheat  mid- 
dlings, linseed  meal,  oats,  corn  meal,  wheat  bran  are 
some  of  the  grains  that  are  fed. 

Feeding  Poultry. — Most  of  our  poultry  are  fed  the 
wastes  from  the  table.  This  food  is  usually  lacking 
in  protein.  In  purchasing  feed  for  poultry  the  farmer 
should  endeavor  to  secure  materials  rich  in  protein. 
In  the  making  of  eggs,  protein  is  one  of  the  essentials 
needed,  as  the  egg  contains  a  great  deal  of  protem. 
Meat  scraps,  fresh  bone,  ground  alfalfa,  and  wheat 
products  are  satisfactory  poultry  feeds.  Never  feed 
cotton-seed  meal  alone,  as  this  feed  is  apt  to  make  poul- 
try sick. 

Laying     hens     require    narrow    rations    and    large 


43° 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


amounts  of  lime.     Ground  oyster  shells  are  often  used. 
Fattening  hens  should  receive  wide  rations. 

Exercise. — Compute  a  ration  for  fattening  a  steer  weighing  1,200 
pounds.  What  would  be  the  amounts  of  corn,  wheat  middlings  and 
skim  milk  to  feed  fattening  swine  6  to  8  months  old?  How  much 
hay  is  the  horse  at  home  receiving  per  day?  Wouldn't  it  be  better 
to  cut  down  the  quantity  of  hay  fed? 


Section  LXXIII. — A  Few  Remarks  About  Feed 

Stuffs. 

Importance  of  State  Feed  Laws. — On  account  of 
the  adulteration  of  commercial  feed  stuffs  many  of  our 
states  have  passed  feed  laws.  These  laws  require  the 
manufacturers  and  dealers  in  these  commodities  to 
"  state  what  they  sell  and  sell  what  they  state."  In 
other  words  they  are  forced  to  guarantee  their  prod- 
ucts. Example — John  Doe  is  manufacturing  and  sell- 
ing cotton-seed  meal.  Before  he  is  allowed  to  sell  his 
cotton-seed  meal  he  must  have  printed  on  the  sacks, 
or  on  tags  attached  to  the  sacks,  the  composition  of 
the  cotton-seed  meal.  Let  us  suppose  that  John  Doe 
has  printed  on  his  sacks  the  following: 
protein  40  per  cent.,  fat  9  per  cent., 
carbohydrates  24  per  cent.,  and  fiber 
10  per  cent.  Weight  100  lbs.  Such 
a  statement  is  the  guarantee.  The 
weight  of  the  package  is  required  be- 
cause some  feeds,  such  as  cracked 
corn,  are  put  up  in  90  and  100  lb. 
sacks.  The  90  lb.  sacks  are  used  in- 
stead of  the  100  lb.  sacks,  because 
most  purchasers  take  it  for  granted 
that  all  feeds  are  sold  in  lots  of  100 
lbs.  or  more.  Feeds  put  up  in  90  lb. 
sacks  are  generally  sold  per  sack  and  not  by  weight. 
The  guarantee,  then,  protects  the  purchaser.  Many 
of  our  State  Feed  Laws  provide  for  a  fine  on  all  goods 
below  the  guarantee. 


A  SPECIMEN  BAG  OF 
COMMERCIAL   FEED. 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING.  431 

Adulteration  of  Feeds. — If  It  were  not  for  the  pro- 
tection our  feed  laws  give  us,  we  would  find  it  hard  to 
purchase  good  standard  products.  In  the  above  case, 
John  Doe  could  easily  introduce  ground  cotton-seed 
hulls  with  his  cotton-seed  meal,  and  sell  the  product 
with  any  guarantee  he  pleased.  He  could  sell  this 
mixed  product  under  the  name  of  cotton-seed  meal, 
when  in  reality  it  is  cotton-seed  meal  and  ground  cotton- 
seed hulls.  Of  course  John  Doe  could  afford  to  sell 
the  mixed  product  at  a  lower  figure,  but  for  the  ingre- 
dients received  the  purchaser  would  pay  a  higher  price. 
Most  states  permit  manufacturers  to  sell  low  grade 
products,  but  they  are  required  to  place  another  name 
on  the  product.  Perhaps  John  Doe  would  not  care 
to  put  out  a  mixture  of  cotton-seed  meal  and  cotton- 
seed hulls  under  the  true  name,  and  he  no  doubt  would 
give  it  a  brand  name  such  as  Cracker  Feed.  The  pur- 
chasers of  low  grade  mixtures  should  know  their 
values.  The  Experiment  Stations  and  the  State 
Boards  of  Agriculture  are  continually  sending  out  bul- 
letins which  comment  and  set  forth  the  values  of  com- 
mercial feeds.  In  all  feeds  the  principles  as  cited  in 
the  foregoing  are  true.  It  is  unfortunate,  but  possible 
for  manufacturers  to  put  out  feeds  that  resemble 
standard  products,  which  are  badly  adulterated. 
These  adulterated  feeds  are  generally  ground  so  fine 
that  the  casual  observer  cannot  detect  the  adulteration 
with  the  naked  eye. 

How  to  Buy  a  Feed. — Do  not  buy  cotton-seed  meal, 
linseed  meal,  wheat  bran,  etc.,  just  because  they  are  so 
named.  In  purchasing  feed  stuffs  send  for  a  bulletin 
from  your  State  Experiment  Station  or  from  the  State 
Board  of  Agriculture.  Read  it  thoroughly  and  find  out 
the  composition  of  the  standard  products  and  purchase 
accordingly.  When  you  learn  the  composition  of  the 
standard  product  or  products  which  you  intend  to  pur- 
chase, ask  your  feed  dealer  the  guarantee  on  his  feeds. 
That  is,  the  composition  and  weight  of  the  package. 
If  the  feed  or  feeds  you  want  to  purchase  are  below 


432  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

the  standard  do  not  buy.  Tell  your  dealer  His  feed  or 
feeds  are  below  the  standard.  Tell  your  neighbors 
about  it  and  force  the  feed  dealer  to  handle  standard 
feeds.  There  are  many  dealers  and  merchants  who 
purchase  the  cheapest  feeds  possible.  They  sell  these 
inferior  feeds  to  their  customers  for  as  nearly  as  high 
a  price  as  high  class  feeds  bring.  They  do  this  to 
make  greater  profits. 

Raise  Your  Feed  at  Home. — It  is  really  unfortunate 
that  our  farmers  do  not  raise  more  of  their  feed  at 
home.  No  matter  what  section  of  the  country  you 
live  in,  you  should  aim  to  have  some  feed  to  sell,  and 
not  be  forced  to  buy  continually.  Raise  forage  crops, 
grow  root  crops  and  harvest  grain.  Sometimes  one  is 
forced  to  purchase  protein  concentrates,  such  as  cotton- 
seed meal,  linseed  meal,  etc. ;  but  the  roughage  or  car- 
bohydrates feeds  can  generally  all  be  raised  on  the 
farm.  In  purchasing  commercial  feeds,  especially 
mixed  feeds,  one  is  forced  to  pay  for  the  cost  of  manu- 
facture, business  losses,  manufacturers'  profit,  expenses 
of  the  traveling  men  who  sell  the  feed,  and  the  cost 
of  freight.  The  most  successful  farmers  in  this  coun- 
try to-day  are  those  who  raise  most  of  their  feed  at 
home. 

Condimental  Feeds. — There  are  a  great  many  of 
these  feeds  sold  upon  the  American  market.  They 
are  made  up  of  mixtures  of  sulphur,  salt,  saltpeter, 
epsom  salts,  Glauber's  salts,  sodium  bicarbonate,  fenu- 
greek seeds,  fennel  seeds,  charcoal,  red  and  black 
peppers,  ground  bone,  Venetian  red,  anise  and  similar 
products,  together  with  some  feed  as  a  basis,  in  vary- 
ing proportions.  These  feeds  generally  carry  attract- 
ive names,  and  the  manufacturers  make  great  claims 
regarding  their  curative  properties.  Some  of  them 
exert  a  tonic  effect;  but  tonics  and  condition  powders 
are  not  needed  by  animals  in  good  health.  If  animals 
are  sick  it  is  cheaper  to  consult  a  veterinarian. 

Experiments  have  been  conducted  by  experiment 
stations  on  this  class  of  feed,  and  the  results  of  these 


FEEDS   AND   FEEDING.  433 

Investigations  have  shown  that  the  economical  feeder 
cannot  afford  to  purchase  them. 

Exercise. — Go  to  a  feed  store  and  copy  the  guarantees  of  the  feeds 
the  dealer  has  on  hand.  Note  the  weight  of  the  packages.  Compare 
the  guarantees  with  the  standards  given  in  Table  i.  Classify  these 
feeds  as  standard  or  inferior.  Visit  your  drug  stores  and  feed 
dealers  and  make  a  list  of  the  various  condimental  feeds  sold  for 
hogs,  cattle,  poultry  and  horses.  Ascertain  the  selling  prices.  Figure 
the  cost  of  these  feeds  per  ton.  Do  your  folks  use  any  of  these 
feeds  ?  Secure  a  few  of  these  feeds  and  try  to  distinguish  some  of 
their  ingredients.  Shelled  corn  is  worth  $30  a  ton  and  cane  molasses 
can  be  purchased  for  $18  a  ton.  If  you  had  considerable  corn  on  hand, 
would  it  be  cheaper  to  sell  your  corn  and  purchase  molasses  for 
feeding  purposes?  What  is  your  reason  for  your  decision?  Which 
is  the  more  economical  to  feed :  cotton-seed  meal  carrying  40  per 
cent,  protein  at  $25  a  ton,  or  cotton-seed  meal  containing  36  per 
cent,  protein  at  $23  a  ton? 


REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING. 

Feeds   and   Feeding  : 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 
32 — Silos  and  silage. 
36 — Cotton  seed  and  its  products. 
84-97-122-225-305 — Feeding  poultry. 
170 — Principles  of  horse  feeding. 
186 — Rations  for  laying  hens. 
202 — Home-grown  protein  for  dairy  cows. 
222 — Silage  for  cows. 
249 — Cereal  breakfast  foods. 
251 — Indoor  vs.  outdoor  feeding  of  steers. 
251 — Cheap  dairy  rations. 
305 — Roots  and  cabbages  for  stock  food. 
346 — Computation  of  rations  by  energy  values. 
Experiment  Station  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

58 — Missouri — Feeding  the  dairy  cow. 
106 — North  Carolina — Rational  stock  feeding. 
114 — Louisiana;  131 — Indiana;  220 — New  Jersey;  120 — Mas- 
sachusetts— Commercial  feeds. 
115 — Louisiana — Feeding. 
182 — Virginia — Silo  construction. 
Books  : 

Feeds  and  Feeding — Henry — W.  A.  Henry,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 
The    Feeding   of   Animals — Jordan — The    Macmillan    Co.,    New 

York  City. 
Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life — Snyder — The  Macmillan 

Co.,  New  York  City. 
Human  Foods — Snyder — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 


CHAPTER    X 


MISCELLANEOUS. 
Section  LXXIV. — Farm  Management. 

By  Prof.  Fred.  W.  Card, 

Late  of  Department  of  Horticulture,  Rhode  Island  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Choice  of  the  Farm. — Many  things  enter  into  the 
problem  of  successful  farm  management.  First 
among  these  is  the  choice  of  the  farm  Itself.  If  one 
is  free  to  choose  many  things  should  be  considered. 


A   MODEL    SET   OF   FARM    BUILDINGS. 

These  include  the  fertility  and  general  character  of  the 
land,  its  contour,  its  freedom  from  stones  or  otherwise, 
its  need  of  drainage,  etc.;  its  distance  from  market 
and  the  character  of  the  roads,  whether  hilly  or  level, 
and  good  or  bad  in  other  respects.     The  adaptability 

434 


MISCELLANEOUS.  435 

of  the  farm  and  the  buildings  to  the  type  of  farming 
intended,  the  condition  of  these  buildings,  the  water 
supply,  etc.,  all  have  an  important  financial  bearing. 
Since  the  farm  is  to  be  a  home  as  well  as  a  business, 
the  character  of  the  neighborhood,  convenience  to 
church  and  schools,  and  beauty  of  location  all  demand 
attention. 

Adaptation  of  the  Farm. — The  problem  of  adapta- 
tion of  the  farm,  the  market,  the  climate,  and  the  gen- 
eral conditions  to  the  type  of  farming  followed  is  one 
of  the  most  important  things  to  be  kept  in  mind.  If 
one  is  not  free  to  get  a  farm  suited  to  the  kind  of  farm- 
ing he  likes  best,  the  next  best  thing  is  to  adapt  the 
farming  to  the  farm  in  hand.  Failure  to  do  this  is 
the  cause  of  much  unprofitable  farming. 

Types  of  Farming. — In  deciding  upon  the  type  to 
be  pursued  the  comparative  advantages  of  special  and 
mixed,  extensive  and  intensive  methods  should  be  care- 
fully weighed. 

1.  Extensive  farming  demands  a  heavier  investment 
in  land,  with  relatively  less  in  equipment  and  labor. 

2.  Intensive  methods  are  adapted  to  fertile  and 
high-priced  land  convenient  to  markets,  but  are  wholly 
unsuited  to  many  locations  where  land  is  poor  and 
markets  remote.  Yet  intensive  methods  are  generally 
relatively  more  profitable  than  extensive  methods  with 
the  same  crop.  It  seldom  pays  to  neglect  a  crop. 
Certain  charges  are  about  the  same  in  either  case;  an 
additional  outlay  in  labor  and  fertilizer  will  often  dou- 
ble the  return. 

3.  Mixed  farming  has  the  advantage  of  a  more  con- 
tinuous income,  less  risk  from  crop  failure  and  low 
prices,  with  less  difl'iculty  in  maintaining  fertility  and 
employing  a  continuous  labor  supply  than  most  spe- 
cialties. 

4.  Special  farming,  with  two  or  three  well-chosen 
lines  which  fit  well  together,  permits  greater  economy 
of  capital  and  of  labor,  develops  greater  skill  in  the 
farmer,  and  gives  better  marketing  facilities. 


436 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


•field  of  rye  on  model  farm, 
fertility  maintained. 


FIELD  OF  RYF  ON  ADJACENT  FARM. 
FERTILITY   RUN   DOWN. 


Balancing  Capital  and  Labor. — Closely  connected 
with  the  choice  of  the  farm  and  the  type  of  farming 
should  go  a  careful  study  of  the  problem  of  balancing 
the  capital  to  be  invested  in  the  various  ways  in  which 
it  will  be  needed,  together  with  the  proper  balance  be- 
tween capital  and  labor  employed.  What  proportion 
of  the  money  invested  ought  to  be  put  into  the  land 
itself,  into  the  buildings  and  their  equipment,  into  live- 
stock and  implements,  and  how  much  should  be  re- 
served with  which  to  pay  for  feed,  fertilizer,  labor  and 
other  expenses  of  management?  No  rule  can  be  laid 
down,  for  the  proportion  will  vary  with  many  things; 
but  in  general  the  more  intensive  the  type  and  the  meth- 
ods employed,  the  larger  will  be  the  relative  amount 
needed  for  equipment  and  running  expenses. 

A  Farm  Should  Run  at  Its  Full  Capacity. — Enough 
labor  should  be  employed  to  run  the  farm  at  its  full 
capacity  and  to  do  things  at  the  right  time.  Much 
loss  results  from  not  being  able  to  reach  things  just 
when  they  need  attention.  It  often  happens  that  a 
few  days'  delay  will  double  the  cost  of  a  piece  of  work. 
No  factory  owner  feels  that  he  can  allow  part  of  his 


MISCELLANEOUS.  437 

factory  to  stand  Idle  for  lack  of  men  to  keep  it  run- 
ning, and  no  farmer  should  feel  that  he  is  doing  his 
best  unless  his  farm  factory  Is  fully  employed.  This 
Is  often  the  most  difficult  problem  In  farming,  for  good 
labor,  at  prices  which  the  returns  will  warrant,  Is  hard 
to  get.  Furnishing  steady  employment  to  men 
throughout  the  year,  and  If  possible  providing  a  neat 
and  comfortable  tenant  house  In  which  they  may  live 
are  aids  in  solving  the  problem. 

Team  Labor  Is  on  a  different  basis;  its  cost  Is  In  the 
expense  of  feed,  bedding,  care,  shoeing,  depreciation 
in  value,  etc.  These  items  do  not  vary  greatly 
whether  the  team  is  working  or  idle.  It  should  be  the 
aim  to  bring  the  cost  of  keeping  to  the  lowest  point 
consistent  with  efficiency,  by  a  wase  choice  of  the  foods 
used,  but  this  is  not  the  most  improtant  phase  of  the 
problem.  If  It  costs  $25  per  month  to  keep  a  team 
of  horses,  and  the  team  works  250  hours  during  the 
month,  the  average  cost  per  hour  Is  ten  cents.  If  In- 
stead, the  team  works  only  125  hours,  the  average  cost 
is  twenty  cents  per  hour.  To  so  plan  the  operations 
of  the  farm  that  no  more  horses  are  kept  than  are 
needed,  and  then  to  keep  them  at  work  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, should  be  the  aim. 

Records  and  Accounts. — A  simple  system  of  records 
and  accounts  is  needed  on  every  farm.  These  should 
enable  the  farmer  to  determine  the  profit  or  loss  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  and  to  find  out  where  the  gains  and 
losses  occur.  It  should  also  furnish  a  record  for  fu- 
ture reference.  A  careful  inventory  of  all  property 
at  the  end  of  each  year  is  the  first  essential.  From  the 
total  assets  should  be  deducted  all  liabilities,  to  obtain 
the  "  net  worth."  A  comparison  of  this  net  amount 
at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  year  Is  the  only  thing 
which  will  show  the  actual  gain  or  loss. 

A  Cash-Bonk,  showing  all  money  taken  In  and  paid 
out,  Is  the  next  essential,  and  this  should  be  full  enough 
to  furnish  a  record  of  transactions  for  future  reference. 
By  adhering  strictly  to  a  cash  business  the  cash-book 


438  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

and  the  check-book  are  the  only  records  necessary  for 
this  purpose  so  far  as  business  transactions  are  con- 
cerned. 

Cost  of  Each  Crop. — To  find  where  gains  and  losses 
occur  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  cost  of  each  crop. 
The  labor  cost  is  most  difficult  to  obtain  unless  a  time 
record  is  kept.  This  is  a  simple  thing  to  do,  and  should 
show  the  amount  of  manual  and  team  labor  expended 
on  each  crop  and  each  line  of  work.  The  printed  time- 
books  which  contractors  use  serve  the  purpose  well. 
By  the  aid  of  this  and  by  adding  the  cost  of  seed,  fer- 
tilizer, rent  of  land,  etc.,  the  cost  of  a  crop  is  readily 
determined.  Then  by  knowing  its  yield  and  value  it  is 
easy  to  see  the  profit  or  loss.  Feeding  records,  milk 
weights  and  butter  fat  tests  are  also  necessary  in  live- 
stock and  dairy  lines. 

A  careful  study  of  such  business  phases  of  the  enter- 
prise will  do  much  to  put  the  farm  on  a  paying  basis. 

Exercise. — Make  a  list  of  farms  following  the  four  types  of  farm- 
ing and  tell  why  the  different  types  are  followed  on  these  farms. 
State  what  crops  are  raised,  live-stock  and  equipment  on  hand,  build- 
ings, and  the  number  of  hands  employed.  On  how  many  of  these 
farms  are  the  hands  and  horses  always  employed?  What  is  the 
average  price  paid  to  farm  hands?  How  many  hours  constitute  a 
working  day?  Are  records  and  accounts  kept  on  any  of  these 
farms?  Do  the  dairy  farms  weigh  their  milk  and  test  it  for  butter 
fat?  Write  your  ideas  on  how  you  would  improve  conditions  on 
some  of  these  farms. 


Section  LXXV. — Farm  Machinery. 

By  Prof.  L.  W.  Chase, 
Department  of  Farm  Mechanics,  University  of  Nebraska. 

I.  Tillage  Machinery. — The  action  of  the  atmos- 
pheric forces  and  the  weight  of  the  soil  itself,  together 
with  the  trampling  of  beasts  and  human  beings,  causes 
it  to  settle  and  become  hard  and  compact.  The  hard- 
est soil  is  that  which  has  stood  for  ages  undisturbed  by 
either  man  or  nature.  The  earliest  farmers  learned 
that  to  procure  good  crops  the  soil  must  be  loosened  or 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


439 


stirred,  and  the  better  the  soil  was  stirred,  or  as  is  gen- 
erally known,  pulverized,  the  larger  the  crop.  Differ- 
ent devices  have  been  used  for  pulverizing  the  ground, 
but  the  most  common  and  probably  the  best  one  Is  the 
plow. 

Plows. — There  are  two  general  classes  of  plow,  the 
moldboard  and  disk  plows. 

Moldboard  Plows. — If  plows  are  all  equally  sharp 
and  equally  well  adjusted  there  will  not  be  any  differ- 
ence in  their  draft  unless  the  moldboard  of  one  has  a 
more  abrupt  curve  than  that  of  another.     Plows  with 


Stubble. 


Black  land. 

TYPES    OF    MOLDBOARDS. 


General  piu-pose.  Breaker, 


nearly  straight  moldboards  are  used  for  breaking  wild 
grass  sod.  The  share,  which  is  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
plow  cuts  the  roots  of  the  grass  about  three  and  one- 
half  inches  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground,  then  the 
moldboard  carefully  and  smoothly  turns  the  sod  upside 
down.     Such  a  plow  is  known   as    a   breaker.     Plows 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  HOW  ONE  LAYER  OF  SOIL  TENDS  TO  SLIDE   PAST 
ANOTHER    WHILE    BEING   TURNED    BY   THE    PLOW. 


440 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


used  for  plowing  tame  grass  sods  have  a  shorter  curved 
moldboard  than  those  used  for  plowing  wild  grass  sods ; 
and  plows  used  for  plowing  old  ground  and  stubble 
have  a  very  short,  abrupt  moldboard. 

Disk  Plows  handle  the  soil  much  as  do  moldboard 
plows,  but  with  a  rolling  instead  of  a  sliding  motion. 
Generally  they  will  work  in  ground  which  is  too  dry 
and  hard  or  too  sticky  for  moldboard  plows;  but,  as 


TWENTY-HORSE-POWER     TRACTION     GASOLINE    ENGINE    DRAWING    FIVE 
FOURTEEN-INCH   PLOWS. 

has  been  determined,  the  draft  of  the  two  classes  of 
plows  is  about  the  same. 

Riding  Plows. — If  the  fields  are  not  too  small,  rid- 
ing plows  if  properly  adjusted  pull  as  easily  as  walk- 
ing plows,  do  better  work,  and  the  operator  has  the 
advantage  of  riding. 

Harrows. — After  the  ground  has  been  plowed  its 
surface  must  be  smoothed,  so  that  the  seeders  will  do 
better  work  and  evaporation  will  be  diminished  by 
causing  less  surface  to  be  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays. 
Harrows  are  the  tools  utilized  to  smooth  the  surface 
of  the  plowed  fields,  and  are  classified  as  follows:  the 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


441 


disk,  the  spring  tooth,  and  the  spike  tooth  harrows. 
The  disk  harrow  pulverizes  the  ground  exceedingly 
well,  firms  the  plowed  field  and  makes  a  uniform  seed 
bed.  The  spring/  tooth  harrow  and  spike  tooth  har- 
row pull  much  easier  than  the  disk  harrow,  but  they 
will  not  penetrate  hard  soils.  Generally  after  the 
ground  has  been  plowed  or  cultivated  they  are  used  to 
smooth  the  surface  or  make  a  soil  mulch. 


DISK    HARROW. 


Cultivators. — After  the  crops  have  been  sowed  or 
planted  the  ground  must  be  tilled  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  weeds,  and  also  to  keep  the  surface  friable. 
Cultivators  are  used  for  this  purpose.  In  the  early 
days,  the  single  shovel  cultivator  was  used  almost  en- 
tirely, and  later  the  double  shovel  came  into  use. 
Now,  in  nearly  all  extensive  farming  operations,  the 
two-horse  walking  or  riding  cultivator  with  four  or 
six  shovels,  and  sometimes  eight  are  used.  In  the 
prairie  sections  two-row  cultivators  with  eight  or 
twelve  shovels  are  becoming  popular. 


442 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


TWO-ROW  CULTIVATOR   WITH   THREE-HORSE   HITCH. 

The  essentials  for  a  good  cultivator  are  that  the 
axles  have  dustproof  bearings,  that  the  levers  be  ac- 
cessible and  easily  worked,  that  there  be  a  device  to 
equalize  the  weight  of  the  man  and  the  tongue,  that 
the  rigs  which  hold  the  shovels  be  as  long  as  possible, 
and  yet  be  not  too  far  behind  the  team,  and  that  all 
the  parts  be  made  of  the  best  kind  of  material. 

2.  Seeding  Machinery. — Machines  used  for  seed- 
ing are  generally  known  as  seeders,  drills,  and  plant- 
ers. Seeders  are  used  for  sowing  the  grains  broad- 
cast, drills  for  putting  it  in  rows,  and  planters  for  both 
drilling  it  in  rows  and  planting  it  in  hills. 

Seeders. — Handseeders   are   either   carried   on   the 


BROADCAST  SEEDER,   DRAWN   BY   HORSES. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  443 

shoulder  and  worked  by  means  of  a  crank  or  bow,  or 
are  attached  to  a  wheel  and  pushed  in  the  form  of  a 
wheelbarrow.  Endgate  seeders  are  attached  to  the 
rear  end  of  the  wagon  and  driven  by  means  of  a  chain- 
wheel  on  the  rear  wheel  of  the  wagon.  With  the  broad- 
cast type  of  seeder  more  grain  can  be  carried  and  the 
operator  rides.  It  also  distributes  the  grain  more  uni- 
formly, especially  in  a  wind,  than  the  endgate  seeder. 

Drills  generally  have  a  force  feed  in  the  bottom  of 
the  seed  box.  By  this  means  the  seed  is  constantly 
being  measured  so  that  a  uniform  amount  is  dropped 
through  the  spouts  into  the  ground.  In  order  that 
the  seed  from  a  drill  may  be  dropped  into  the  ground, 
a  furrow  must  be  opened  which  will  permit  the  seed 
to  fall  into  it.  To  make  this  furrow  there  are  four 
different  types  of  openers  in  use : — the  hoe,  the  shoe, 
the  single  disk  opener,  and  the  double  disk  opener. 

The  hoe  is  the  least  expensive  design,  but  gathers 
trash  badly,  is  likely  to  break  and  seems  to  clog  more 
than  the  other  designs.  The  shoe  is  a  very  satisfactory 
style  of  opener,  but  will  not  penetrate  hard  ground. 
Disk  openers  seem  to  be  in  the  greatest  demand  at 
present.  They  are  not  very  troublesome  about  clog- 
ging, will  enter  nearly  all  kinds  of  soil,  and  if  properly 
designed  do  not  require  many  repairs.  The  single 
disk  penetrates  the  ground  better  than  the  double,  but 
is  harder  to  pull.  In  some  localities  where  fall  seed- 
ing is  carried  on  very  extensively  the  single  disk  is  pre- 
ferred to  the  double  because  it  leaves  the  ground 
rougher,  and  thus  it  catches  the  snow  and  breaks  the 
wind.  The  double  disk  leaves  the  ground  smoother 
and  is  often  desired  for  this  reason. 

Planters  are  generally  spoken  of  as  machines  for 
planting  cotton,  corn  and  potatoes. 

The  Potato  Planter  is  a  new  machine  and  is  only 
being  developed;  however,  it  is  already  being  success- 
fully used  in  many  localities. 

Cotton  Planters  are  either  of  the  one-row  or  the 
two-row   type.     The    earlier    planters    simply   drilled 


444  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

the  seed  in  a  row  and  covered  It  with  a  roller,  but  dur- 
ing recent  years  two-row  types  have  been  made  which 
in  certain  localities  are  very  successful.  For  the 
farmer  who  raises  cotton  in  small  fields  the  one-horse 
drill  is  better  adapted  than  the  two-row  drill.  For 
a  farmer  who  raises  corn  as  well  as  cotton,  the  com- 
bined corn  and  cotton  planter  answers  very  well. 


COMBINED  COTTON  AND  CORN   PLANTER  WITH  FERTILIZER  DISTRIBUTER 
ATTACHMENT. 

A  Corn  Planter  which  does  good  work  is  an  imple- 
ment which  is  important  to  the  farmer.  There  are 
two  classes:  the  lister  and  drill  combined,  and  the 
planter  and  drill  combined.  The  former  type  is  a 
machine  which  plows  the  ground  and  plants  the  corn 
at  the  same  time;  and  the  latter  drills  the  corn  in 
rows;  or,  by  a  simple  adjustment,  plants  it  in  hills. 
The  place  for  the  lister  is  in  semi-arid  countries,  and 
where  there  is  a  great  deal  of  wind.  Listers  plant 
the  corn  so  that  the  stalks  are  well  down  in  the  ground 
where  the  moisture  is,  and  at  the  same  time  furnish 
a  brace  for  the  stalks,  thus  preventing  them  from  dry- 
ing out  so  quickly  or  being  blown  down  badly. 

The  different  operations  of  the  present  day  corn 
planter  are  to  mark  the  field  by  means  of  a  marker, 
which  furnishes  a  guide  by  which  to  drive  the  team, 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


445 


CORN    PLANTER   WITH   DISK   FURROW   OPENERS. 

to  open  a  small  furrow  in  which  the  corn  is  dropped, 
to  select  the  proper  number  of  kernels  from  the  seed 
box,  gather  them  into  a  hill,  drop  them  into  the  fur- 
row and  cover  them. 

3.  Harvesting  Machinery. — If  the  crops  have  been 
grown  and  ripened  they  must  be  harvested.  In  the 
early  days  all  harvesting  was  done  by  hand,  and  as 
the  age  of  farm  implements  approached  various  ma- 


IMPLEMENTS  USED  IN  PRODUCING  lOO  BUSHELS  OF  CORN  PER  ACRE. 


446  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

chines  were  devised  to  harvest  the  different  kinds  of 
crops.  Such  crops  as  wheat,  rice,  oats,  barley,  rye, 
etc.,  need  a  machine  which  will  gather  all  the  heads 
of  the  grains  and  keep  them  separated  from  the  straw. 
Machinery  for  harvesting  the  grasses  wherein  it  is  im- 
material whether  the  blades  are  kept  perfectly  straight 
or  from  mingling  together,  are  more  simple  than  for 
harvesting  grains;  while  machinery  for  harvesting 
root  crops  are  yet  a  new  feature. 

Sickles,  or  reaper  hooks,  were  th^  first  implements 
used  for  gathering  the  grains. 

Cradles. — The  cradle  has  taken  the  place  of  the 
sickle  in  nearly  all  countries  where  hand  machines  are 
yet  used.  This  machine  is  simply  a  heavy  scythe  with 
several  fingers  extending  above  the  blade  in  such  a 
way  that  they  gather  the  stalks  of  grain  as  they  are 
cut,  and  hold  them  together  so  that  they  may  be  de- 
posited in  a  uniform  pile  on  the  stubble.  The  bun- 
dles are  then  gathered  together  and  tied  in  sheaths 
by  hand.  Although  this  was  a  great  improvement 
over  the  sickle,  it  was  not  satisfactory,  and  inventors 
kept  working  on  new  machinery  until  the  self-rake 
came  into  use.  The  self-rake  cuts  the  grain,  drops 
it  on  a  platform,  and  when  a  sufficient  amount  has  been 
cut  to  make  a  bundle,  large  arms  or  rakes  come  around 
and  rake  the  bundle  off  the  platform  and  leave  it  on 
the  ground.  At  one  time  the  dropping  of  the  bundles 
from  the  platform  to  the  ground  was  accomplished 
by  a  man  walking  behind  and  raking  the  bundles  off 
with  a  hand  rake.  It  was  a  tiresome  piece  of  work 
to  follow  a  self-rake,  stoop  over  and  gather  the  bun- 
dles and  tie  them  up;  hence,  a  machine  was  devised 
wherein  two  men  could  ride  and  tie  the  bundles  as  fast 
as  they  were  gathered.  Such  a  machine  did  not  sat- 
isfy the  wishes  of  the  inventors,  so  after  more  study- 
ing and  experimenting,  the  self-binder  was  produced. 

Self-Binder. — The  self-binder  now  in  use  cuts  the 
grain,  gathers  it,  ties  it  in  bundles  and  deposits  the 
bundles  on  the  ground. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


447 


Binders — The  self-binder  cuts  the  grain,  drops 
it  uniformly  upon  a  canvas,  by  means  of  a  reel,  the 
canvas  carries  the  grain  to  an  entrance  between  two 
elevating  canvasses,  they  elevate  the  grain  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  machine,  it  is  then  dropped  upon  a 
deck  where  it  is  allowed  to  slide  down  into  the  clutches 
of  the  packers.  These  packers,  assisted  by  the  butter 
which  makes  the  ends  of  the  bundles  uniform,  pack  the 
grain  into  a  bundle  of  the  size  desired  by  the  operator. 
A  string  is  then  drawn  around  this  bundle  by  means  of 


BINDER   RUN    BY   GASOLINE   ENGINE   OR   HORSES. 

a  needle.  After  the  string  has  been  thrown  around  it 
is  tied  and  severed  from  the  main  ball  of  twine,  the 
bundle  is  then  kicked  from  the  binder  to  the  carrier. 
This  carrier  carries  the  bundles  until  the  proper  num- 
ber have  been  gathered  when  it  drops  them  adjacent 
to  the  bundles  which  have  been  dropped  by  a  previous 
round  of  the  machine.  In  operating  a  grain  binder 
care  should  be  exercised  in  the  manipulation  of  the 
reel.  If  the  reel  is  held  too  high  it  does  not  cause 
the  grain  to  fall  properly  on  the  platform  canvas. 
If  too  low  it  hits  the  grain  a  blow  which  knocks  it  to 


448  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

the  back  side  of  the  platform  and  sometimes  upon  the 
ground.  If  too  far  back  it  does  not  grapple  the  grain 
sufficiently  to  be  of  service,  and  if  too  far  ahead  it 
does  not  give  the  grain  sufficient  momentum  to  cause 
it  to  drop  upon  the  canvas  uniformly.  The  canvas 
should  be  kept  as  tight  as  possible  while  in  operation, 
but  should  always  be  loosened  when  the  machine  is 
to  stand  a  few  hours  without  working.  The  canvas 
rollers  should  be  parallel,  and  with  their  ends  at  right- 
angles  to  each  other.  All  the  parts  of  the  knotter 
should  be  kept  polished  perfectly  smooth  and  free 
from  rust.  There  should  be  no  lost  motion  in  these 
parts  no  matter  how  slight  it  may  be.  If  the  knotter 
pinion  becomes  worn  it  must  be  replaced  by  a  new 
one.  The  twine  disk  should  be  adjusted  so  that  it 
takes  a  force  of  about  forty  pounds  to  pull  the  twine 
from  it.  If  an  untied  band  has  a  knot  on  one  end 
it  is  generally  because  the  disk  does  not  move  far 
enough,  and  the  knotter-hook  grasps  only  one  cord. 
Sometimes,  however,  this  same  trouble  will  occur  when 
the  needle  does  not  carry  the  twine  far  enough.  In 
that  case  the  needle  which  is  of  malleable  iron  can  be 
bent.  Always  keep  the  knife  perfectly  smooth  and 
sharp.  It  is  best  to  sharpen  it  with  a  fine  whetstone 
during  every  thirty  or  forty  acres  of  cutting. 

Headers. — In  countries  where  there  are  large  fields 
and  they  are  not  too  heavy,  harvesters  are  used  which 
are  known  as  headers  or  push  machines.  These  head- 
ers generally  cut  a  swath  about  twelve  feet  wide,  and 
unless  the  machine  has  the  binder  attachment  it  ele- 
vates the  grain  into  a  rack  known  as  a  header-box. 
This  header-box  is  on  a  wagon  and  is  driven  along 
beside  the  header  by  means  of  an  extra  team.  Four 
or  six  horses  are  generally  used  upon  push  machines, 
and  they  travel  behind  it  pushing  the  machine  before 
them. 

4,  Mowers. — Such  machinery  as  is  used  for  gather- 
ing the  grasses  can  be  called  hay  machinery.  The  first 
of  these  is  the  mower  which  cuts  the  grass.     The  cut- 


MISCELLANEOUS.  449 

ting  is  accomplished  in  the  same  manner  as  though 
having  several  pairs  of  shears  moving  through  the 
grass  side  by  side.  On  the  mower,  however,  one 
blade  of  the  shears  is  fixed,  and  is  known  as  a  guard 
while  the  other  blade  moves  back  and  forth  and  is 
known  as  a  section.  There  is  a  section  for  each 
guard,  and  all  the  sections  are  riveted  to  one  bar  mak- 
ing a  device  known  as  the  sickle.  This  sickle  is  driven 
by  means  of  a  pitman,  one  end  of  which  is  attached  to 
a  crank-wheel.  This  crank-wheel  in  turn  is  driven  by 
a  system  of  gears  which  are  propelled  by  the  mower 
wheels.  The  guards  are  attached  to  one  long  bar, 
and  they  go  together  and  comprise  what  is  known  as 
the  cutter-bar.  In  the  earlier  machines  this  cutter- 
bar  was  drawn  directly  behind  the  horses,  but  because 
of  the  horses  trampling  the  grass  it  was  soon  moved 
out  to  one  side  so  that  the  horses  could  travel  on  the 
mown  grass  while  the  machine  cut  a  new  swath.  The 
essentials  of  a  good  mower  are  that  there  be  very 
little  weight  on  the  horses'  necks,  that  the  cutter-bar 
does  not  tend  to  pull  the  machine  around  to  one  side, 
making  side  draft,  that  the  sections  bear  perfectly  on 
the  guard  plates,  that  the  cutter-bar  be  in  perfect  line 
with  the  pitman.  There  should  be  no  lost  motion 
whatever  in  the  gears,  the  cutter-bar  should  be  so  de- 
signed that  it  will  conform  to  uniform  ground,  and 
yet  be  raised  very  easily,  and  a  good  feature  is  to  have 
the  machine  thrown  out  of  gear  as  soon  as  the  cutter- 
bar  is  raised  a  certain  height. 

Rakes. — After  the  grass  has  been  cut  and  allowed 
to  dry  It  is  raked  into  windrows.  There  are  two 
kinds  of  horse  rakes  for  this  purpose.  One  which  is 
the  older  is  the  sulky  rake,  and  the  other  is  the  side 
delivery  rake.  This  rake  is  used  by  traveling  in  the 
same  direction  in  which  the  mower  has  traveled  gath- 
ering the  hay  into  one  large  bunch,  and  as  soon  as  the 
rake  is  full  it  is  dumped.  Every  round  one  bunch  is 
dumped  adjacent  to  the  bunch  of  the  previous  round, 
making  windrows.     This  dumping  action  can  be  ac- 


4SO 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


complished  either  by  hand  or  automatically  as  the  ma- 
chine is  designed  to  operate.  The  side  delivery  rake 
is  one  in  which  the  rake  very  much  resembles  a  cylinder 


SIDE   DELIVERY   RAKE. 


with  teeth  sticking  out  on  it  moving  along  at  an  angle 
with  the  swath.  This  rake  or  cylinder  in  revolving 
picks  up  the  grass  and  keeps  a  continual  stream  of  It 
moving  off  to  the  side  which  forms  the  windrow.  It 
does  not  pack  the  hay  as  tight  in  the  windrow  as  the 
sulky  rake,  but  if  properly  operated  lifts  all  the  grass 
from  the  ground.  As  large  a  windrow  as  desired  can 
be  gathered  by  pulling  several  swaths  together.  The 
strong  features  of  this  rake  are  Its  ability  to  rake  very 
green  grass,  and  its  action  in  leaving  the  grass  in  a 
loose  windrow.  It  Is  exceedingly  well  adapted  for  the 
clover  crops,  especially  for  alfalfa. 

Hayloaders. — After  the  grass  has  been  cured  it  is 
then  ready  to  be  stacked  or  be  put  In  the  mow.  If 
taken  from  a  field  and  put  in  a  mow  a  hayloader  is  a 
very  convenient  device.  This  machine  Is  intended  to 
be  coupled  on  the  rear  end  of  the  hayrack.  It  gathers 
the  grass  or  hay  by  means  of  a  cylinder,  elevates  it 
into  the  air  by  means  of  rope-webs  or  rakes,  and  de- 
posits it  in  the  racks  where  It  is  placed  about  by  the 
men.  The  loaders  which  load  the  hay  by  means  of 
rakes  crowd  it  upon  the  load  in  very  good  shape,  but 
in  handling  clover  hays  is  apt  to  shake  a  great  many 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


451 


leaves  off,  while  the  loaders  which  load  the  hay  by 
means  of  a  cylinder  and  rope-web  do  not  leave  the 
hay  in  quite  as  good  shape  on  the  load,  but  preserve 
nearly  all  the  leaves. 

When  the  hay  is  to  be  stacked  in  the  field  it  is  more 
economically  gathered  together  by  means  of  a  sweep. 
This  sweep  is  operated  by  means  of  two  horses,  one 
hitched  at  each  end,  and  driven  on  each  side  of  the 
windrow,  the  sweep  often  gathering  as  much  hay 
as  can  be  carried  on  a  small  hayrack.  The  hay  is 
then  taken  to  the  stack  where  it  is  deposited  on  the 
fork  of  the  stacker.  Here  there  is  another  team 
which  by  means  of  ropes  and  derricks  raises  it  and 
drops  it  on  the  stack.  There  are  two  general  kinds 
of  stackers  now  in  use.  One  is  where  the  load  of  hay 
is  raised  up  similar  to  raising  a  board  flat  on  the 
ground  up  on  its  end.  In  this  case  the  load  of  hay 
is  carried  completely  over  the  machine,  and  the  ma- 
chine itself  is  known  as  an  over-shot  stacker.  The 
other  style  is  known  as  a  swing  stacker.  It  simply 
lifts  a  load  of  hay  straight  up,  swings  it  around  and 
drops  it  on  the  stack. 

5.  Care  of  Farm  Machines. — The  elements  cause 
the  rapid  deterioration  of  machinery,  and  a  sheltered 


CARELESS   HANDLING   OF   FARM    MACHINERY. 

place  should  be  set  aside  on  every  farm  for  the  stor- 
age of  farm  machinery.  A  farmer  of  to-day  must 
necessarily  be   somewhat   of   a   mechanic   in  order  to 


452  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

keep  farm  machines  in  good  working  order.  All 
breakages  should  be  repaired  at  once,  and  duplicate 
parts  should  be  kept  on  hand  to  save  delay.  The 
failure  to  repair  farm  machines  promptly,  often  causes 
a  loss  of  much  time  and  sometimes  the  discarding  of 
valuable  machinery. 

Exercise. — Make  a  list  of  the  farm  machines  you  are  familiar  with. 
Classify  them  under  the  heads  as  given  in  this  article.  How  much 
more  labor  did  it  take  to'  raise  an  acre  of  corn  in  the  year  1800  than 
at  the  present  time?  What  do  you  attribute  this  saving  of  labor  to? 
Do  you  know  any  farmers  who  do  not  keep  their  farm  machines  in 
a  sheltered  place?  State  how  these  farmers  lose  money  from  year  to 
year  by  such  practice. 

The  teacher  should  take  the  class  out  to  a  large  farm  and  examine 
the  machinery. 

Section    LXXVI. — The  Disposal  of  Sewage  on 
THE  Farm. 

By  Prof.  J.  B.  Davidson, 
Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  Iowa  State  College. 

The  Requirements  of  Sewage  Disposal. — Modern 
ideals  of  sanitation  demand  that  new  methods  be  util- 
ized to  dispose  of  the  sewage  from  the  farm  house 
and  the  outbuildings.  Methods  in  use  a  few  years 
ago  are  not  acceptable  now,  largely  on  account  of  the 
installation  of  plumbing  fixtures  in  the  farm  houses. 
A  good  sewage  disposal  system  should  prevent  an  ac- 
cumulation of  material  to  harbor  disease,  should  not 
endanger,  by  contamination,  the  water  supply,  and 
should  provide  for  the  saving  of  fertilizer  material 
which  would  otherwise  be  wasted.  The  sewage  from 
a  farmstead  may  be  emptied  into  a  large  stream  of 
flowing  water  if  available,  similar  to  the  method  pur- 
sued by  the  larger  river  cities.  It  is  not  often,  how- 
ever, that  this  method  can  be  made  use  of. 

The  Cess-Pool. — The  sewage  may  be  discharged 
into  a  cess-pool,  which  is  a  reservoir  with  an  open  wall 
through  which  the  liquids  seep  away  into  the  soil. 
This  method  is  the  cheapest,  but  has  little  to  commend 
it.     A  cess-pool  for  average  requirements  can  be  con- 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


453 


structed  for  from  $15  to  $20.  The  great  danger 
from  the  cess-pool  lies  in  the  contamination  of  the 
water  supply  if  secured  from  wells  in  the  vicinity. 
Grease  Is  also  apt  to  collect  upon  the  wall  and  pre- 
vent the  liquids  from  seeping  through.  Often  lye  Is 
used  for  dissolving  this  grease  and  overcomes  the  dif- 
ficulty. The  solids  settle  in  the  cess-pool,  and  must 
be  removed  at  stated  intervals,  perhaps  once  in  two 
years. 

The  Septic  Tank. — If  the  sewage  is  carried  into  a 
large  reservoir  where  it  may  be  allowed  to  remain  for 


ifffurtwutm-tf 


I  or&roK«n  Sion« 


r.ltevbMl        !» 


3Ecr;0N  THROUGH  SEPTIC  TANK 

IVITH  riLTER  BED, 


some  time,  it  is  purified  by  bacterial  action.  There 
is  one  kind  of  bacteria  which  attacks  the  solids  of  the 
sewage  and  causes  them  to  decay  if  the  sewage  Is  al- 
lowed to  remain  in  a  quiet  dark  reservoir  for  a  short 
time.  This  action  causes  the  sewage  to  clarify  and 
the  Insoluble  parts  to  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 
The  purified  sewage  may  be  led  anywhere  to  water  a 
garden  or  a  field  without  any  danger  of  contamina- 
tion. The  flow  of  the  sewage  into  the  septic  tank, 
the  name  given  to  the  reservoir,  should  be  as  quiet 
as  possible  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  bacterial  action. 
For  this  reason,  low  partitions  are  placed  across 
the  tank,  over  which  the  sewage  must  pass  in  a  thin 
stream. 

The  Filter  Bed  System. — The  bacterial  action  may 
be  accomplished  in  another  way  by  allowing  the  sew- 
age after  settling  in  a  tank  to  be  discharged  at  inter- 


454 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


vals  on  a  filter  bed  of  gravel.  In  this  case,  a  variety 
of  bacteria  requiring  air  purifies  the  sewage  by  oxida- 
tion. The  settling  tank  for  the  aver- 
age family  should  hold  125  to  200 
gallons.  Due  provision  should  be 
made  for  removing  the  solids  which 
settle  in  the  tank  at  least  once  in  two 
years.  The  filter  bed  should  be  about 
three  feet  wide  and  twenty  feet  long. 
It  is  made  up  of  sand  and  gravel  of  a 
depth  of  about  two  feet. 


FRESH  BIR  VENT 

3^  SETTLING  CHRMBER 
FbUSH  THNK 


O  SIPHON  CHRMBER 


DRTE  CHHMBER 


At  the  bottom  of  the  bed 
is  a  drain  tile  to  care  for 
the  purified  sewage.   With 
this   system,    a    syphon   is 
necessary  to  discharge  the 
sewage  on  the  bed  at  in- 
tervals,   otherwise   the   bacteria   would 
be  drowned.     A  sewage  disposal  plant 
can  best  be  made  of  concrete  in  which 
case  an  average  cost  at  this  time  would 
be  about  $60.     The  settling  tank  may 
be  made  of  three  barrels  placed  end  to 
end,  in  which  case  the  cost  may  be  re- 
duced to  $25. 

The  latter  system  on  account  of  the 

HOW  THE  SEWAGE  i  •  ■'  l  •       ^     j  j     i 

MAY  BE  TAKEN    sypfion  IS  morc   complicated,   and   has 
CARE  OF  AF-    not  in  all  cases  proven  satisfactory  for 
th\oug^h^a    P^^^^^^   systems,   although   it   has  been 
SEPTIC  TANK,      eminently    successful     for    towns     and 
small  cities.     In  any  case  it  should  be 
remembered  that  a  sewage  disposal  plant  must  have 
some  care  and  attention  if  it  is  to  give  the  best  re- 
sults. 

Note :  Typhoid  fever  is  often  caused  by  drinking 
water,  which  is  contaminated  by  seepage  from  the  out- 
buildings. In  every  community  where  typhoid  fever 
prevails  an  investigation  of  the  sewage  disposal  should 
be  made. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


455 


To  r.«ld8 


5EW/\GE    DISPOSAL    PLANT  FOR    FARM  HOME 


Exercise. — Write  a  description  of  the  methods  of  sewage  disposal 
in  use  in  the  community.  Give  your  views  on  how  these  systems  of 
sewage  disposal  can  be  improved.  How  many  farmers  use  the  sew- 
age as  fertilizer?  How  far  is  the  well  at  your  home  from  the  out- 
buildings? Does  the  land  slope  from  the  outbuildings  towards  the 
well?  Is  there  any  chance  of  contaminating  the  well  water  by  seep- 
age from  the  outbuildings? 


Section  LXXVII. — Earth  Roads. 

By  Prof.  J.  B.  Davidson, 
Department  of  Agricultural  Engineering,  Iowa  State  College. 


Introduction. 


It  is  doubtful  if  there  is  another  factor  which  has 
as  great  an  influence  upon  the  betterment  of  rural 
life  as  good  roads.  Good  roads  have  two  important 
functions;  first,  to  facilitate  travel  and  make  it  a 
pleasure,  and  second,  to  reduce  the  cost  of  the  trans- 
portation of  farm  and  manufactured  products  over 
them.  The  cost  of  the  transportation  of  one  ton  one 
mile  over  a  railroad,  which  represents  the  highest 
type  of  a  road,  is  from  one-tenth  to  one-twenty-fifth 
of  what  it  costs  over  an  average  country  road.  The 
total  cost  of  transporting  twelve  of  the  principal  farm 
products  to  market  in  1905  has  been  estimated  at 
$73,000,000,  about  5.2  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  these 
crops.*     Better  roads  which  would  reduce  the  cost  of 

*  Bui.    49 — Bureau    of    Statistics — Cost    of    Hauling    Crops    from 
Farms  to  Shipping  Points. 


456  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

transportation,  even  but  a  small  per  cent.,  would  re- 
sult in  a  large  saving  to  the  country. 

By  far  the  largest  portion  of  the  roads  of  the 
United  States  are  earth  roads  aggregating  about 
2,000,000  miles.*  It  is  thought  that  It  will  be  many 
years  before  even  a  small  proportion  of  these  roads 
can  be  improved  by  surfacing  with  some  other  mate- 
rial suitable  for  road  building.  For  this  reason,  the 
subject  of  earth  road  construction  and  maintenance  is 
of  great  importance  to  all  interested  in  rural  develop- 
ment. 

Earth  Road  Construction. 

The  subject  of  earth  roads  readily  divides  itself 
into  two  main  divisions:  first,  earth  road  construction 
— the  building  or  making  of  the  roads,  and  second, 
earth  road  maintenance — the  care  of  the  road  after  it 
is  made.  The  ideal  road  of  any  material  is  con- 
structed and  maintained  so  as  to  be  as  hard,  level  and 
smooth  as  possible.  An  earth  road  is  best  when  It 
is  made  to  comply  with  these  requirements.  Water, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  is  the  most  destructive 
agent  of  earth  roads,  and  their  construction  consists 
primarily  in  excluding  the  water  from  the  road  or,  in 
other  words,  providing  drainage. 

The  Crown. — If  water  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
surface  of  an  earth  road.  It  softens  the  surface  and 
destroys  that  fundamental  characteristic  of  a  good 
road,  its  hardness  or  firmness.  If  the  surface  of  a 
road  is  earth,  it  will  absorb  the  water  that  comes  to 
it  in  the  form  of  rain  or  snow,  and  will  be  converted 
into  mud  unless  the  water  is  shed  to  each  side  as  soon 
as  possible.  The  slope  or  oval  shape  given  to  a  road 
for  this  purpose  is  called  the  crown.  The  slope  of 
the  crown  must  not  be  too  steep  to  make  it  dangerous 
for  vehicles  to  pass,  but  it  should  be  steep  enough  to 
shed   the   water   as   quickly   as   possible.     The   usual 

*  Farmers'  Bui.  321 — U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


457 


riosT  Class 

Section   in  Cut 


Secono  CL/isi 

Section  in  Cot 

STANDARD   CROSS-SECTIONS   FOR   EARTH    ROADS.      IOWA   HIGHWAY 
COMMISSION. 

amount  of  the  slope  amounts  to  about  one  inch  raise 
to  one  foot  of  width  of  the  roadway.  The  accompany- 
ing figure  shows  standard  cross-sections  for  earth  roads 
in  Iowa,  and  the  lower  figure  shows  a  recently  con- 
structed road  with  a  standard  cross-section.  This 
cross-section  is  such  that  it  can  be  readily  built  with  a 


A    ROAD    aUlLT    TU    STANUAKl).       lUl'-    K'lAD    ROLLER    AND    SCRAPING 
GRADER    AT    WORK. 


458  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

scraping  grader  as  shown  in  the  figure,  which  makes 
the  cost  of  construction  low.  To  make  a  road  more 
nearly  level,  hills  must  be  cut  down  and  hollows  filled 
by  means  of  machines  designed  to  carry  earth  for  some 
distance.  After  a  road  has  been  formed,  it  is  desirable 
that  the  crown  be  made  as  firm  as  possible  with  a  heavy 
roller,  but  the  travel  may  be  depended  upon  to  do  this 
work. 

Side  Ditches. — After  the  water  is  shed  from  off 
the  crown,  it  is  necessary  to  have  side  ditches  to  carry 
the  water  along  the  road  to  points  where  it  may  be 
turned  into  natural  water  courses.  These  ditches 
should  be  of  a  form  which  may  be  easily  constructed 
at  a  low  cost,  and  they  should  be  ample  in  size  to  carry 
away  the  water  after  a  heavy  rainfall.  They  should 
not  be  so  deep  as  to  be  dangerous  should  a  vehicle  be 
driven  into  them,  and  their  form  should  be  such  as 
to  permit  them  to  be  easily  cleaned.  The  side  ditches 
will  fulfil  in  a  large  measure  all  of  these  requirements. 
The  side  ditches  should  be  provided  with  a  uniform 
slope  to  a  good  outlet.  It  is  rarely  possible  for  a  good 
road  to  exist  where  water  stands  in  ponds  in  the  side 
ditches. 

Under  drainage. — Ground  water  must  not  stand 
within  three  or  four  feet  of  the  road  surface,  or  it 
will  pass  to  the  surface  by  capillary  action,  and  not 
only  soften  the  foundation,  but  the  road  proper.  No 
road  material  will  sustain  a  heavy  load  unless  the 
foundation  on  which  it  rests  is  firm  and  solid.  Earth 
will  not  make  a  good  foundation  if  saturated  with 
water.  Not  only  will  the  water  soften  the  road  and 
its  foundation,  but  in  climates  where  the  ground  is 
frozen  during  the  winter  seasons  the  action  of  frost  is 
very  destructive  where  water  is  present,  due  to  its 
heaving  action  or  expansion  upon  freezing. 

Most  earth  roads  are  provided  with  natural  under- 
drainage;  that  is,  the  ground  water  does  not  lie  within 
three  or  four  feet  of  the  surface.  But  where  natural 
underdrainage  does  not  exist,  artificial  underdrainage 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


459 


must  be  provided.  This  consists  in  placing  one  or 
more  lines  of  drain  tile  under  the  road.  Opinions 
differ  in  regard  to  the  exact  location  of  the  tile,  but 
that  is  more  or  less  immaterial  so  long  as  the  ground 
water  is  removed.  In  laying  tile  the  principal  points 
to  be  considered  are,  that  sufficient  fall  be  allowed  to 
provide  good  drainage  and  prevent  filling  with  silt, 
and  to  have  the  outlet  above  standing  water. 


Road  Maintenance. 


The  Road  Drag. — After  the  earth  road  is  properly 
constructed,  it  should  then  be  maintained  so  as  to  re- 
tain as  far  as  possible 
its  original  form.  To 
do  this  work  the  best 
implement  now  known 
is  the  road  drag,  two 
forms  of  which  are 
shown.       These     road 

drags  consist  of  two  \ 
planks  or  the  two 
halves  of  a  log  made 
into  a  drag,  as  shown, 
and  which  is  drawn 
along  the  road  so  that 
the  planks  make  an 
angle  with  the  direc- 
tion of  motion,  and  tends  to  draw  the  earth  toward 
the  center,  maintaining  the  original  cross-section  which 
is  worn  away  by  travel.  The  action  of  the  drag  is  to 
keep  the  surface  of  the  road  oval  and  smooth  that 
water  cannot  remain  on  the  surface  and  soften  it. 
The  best  time  to  use  the  drag  is  following  a  rain  after 
the  surface  has  dried  until  the  earth  can  be  moved  in 
front  of  the  drag.     The  continued  use  of  the  drag 


TWO  COMMON  FORMS  OF  ROAD  DRAG. 


460 


FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


AN  EARTH  ROAD  MAINTAINED  WITH  A  ROAD  DRAG. 

and  the  action  of  travel  distributed  over  the  crown  in 
time  make  a  very  satisfactory  road.  The  figure  shows 
a  road  maintained  by  the  road  drag  and  shows  the 
road  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  roads  are  generally 
bad. 

Exercise. — State  the  annual  appropriation  made  in  your  county 
the  past  year  for  the  maintenance  of  good  roads.  How  do  poor  roads 
affect  agriculture? 


Section  LXXVIII. — The  Country  Home. 

By  J.  E.  Halligan, 
Chemist  in  Charge,  Louisiana  State  Experiment  Station. 

The  House. — A  well  natural-drained  spot  should  be 
selected  for  the  site  of  the  house,  somewhat  above  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  ground  so  that  rain  water  will 
not  accumulate  about  the  premises. 

The  house  should  be  substantially  built.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  have  an  expensive  house,  but  it  should 
be  large  enough  to  furnish  ample  room  for  the  needs 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


461 


of  the  family.  Covered  galleries  or  porches  are  very 
attractive  and  convenient  for  the  comfort  of  the  home. 
A  country  house  should  not  always  be  patterned  after 
a  city  house.  In  the  city,  land  is  high-priced  and 
scarce,  and  often  a  house  must  be  constructed  to  oc- 
cupy a  limited  space.     Such  a  house  in  the  country 


A   WELL-KEPT   COUNTRY   HOME. 


would  be  entirely  out  of  place  and  unattractive,  but 
it  looks  very  well  in  the  city,  for  it  is  bordered  on  both 
sides  by  other  houses.  Tall  narrow  houses  are  un- 
suitable for  the  country.  A  country  house  should  be 
built  along  simple  and  strong  lines,  and  be  free  from 
fancy  trimmings  and  odd  shapes.  It  should  be  kept 
well  painted  in  moderate  colors. 


462  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

Ventilation. — It  seems  almost  needless  to  say  that 
the  house  should  be  well  aired,  yet  there  are  many 
farm  homes  where  the  air  and  sunshine  scarcely  ever 
reach  all  of  the  rooms.  Fresh  air  and  sunshine  are 
two  things  every  farmer  can  enjoy  in  his  home,  and 
every  room  in  the  house  should  be  thoroughly  aired 
and  penetrated  by  sunlight  every  day.  In  sleeping 
rooms  the  windows  should  be  left  open  day  and  night. 
During  severe  cold  or  stormy  weather  at  least  one 
window  should  be  left  open  for  every  two  occupants. 

Water  Supply. — An  abundant  supply  of  pure  water 
is  essential  in  every  farm  house.  In  many  sections  the 
drinking  water  is  not  fit  for  use.  Many  country  peo- 
ple become  troubled  with  stomach  disorders  and  other 
sickness  because  of  impure  water.  If  well  water  is 
used,  the  well  should  be  placed  far  enough  from  the 
house  and  outbuildings  to  prevent  any  seepage  into  it. 
It  should  be  covered  with  cement  to  prevent  contami- 
nation. The  water  may  be  pumped  from  the  well  or 
spring  into  a  large  elevated  storage  tank  by  the  aid 
of  a  windmill  for  use  in  the  house. 

As  soon  a,s  the  farmer  is  able,  a  sink  in  the  kitchen, 
a  bathroom,  wash  bowl  and  sanitary  closets  should  be 
installed.  The  farm  labor  may  be  used  to  do  this 
work,  and  if  the  services  of  a  plumber  are  needed  only 
a  little  of  the  inside  work  will  be  necessary  to  hire 
done.  A  good  waterworks  system  for  a  country  home 
may  be  installed  for  $200  to  $300. 

Conveniences. — The  house  should  be  substantially 
furnished  with  good,  strong,  plain,  comfortable  furni- 
ture. Expensive  furniture  is  not  necessary  in  a  coun- 
try home.  An  acetylene  lighting  system  is  a  great 
comfort.  The  principal  cost  of  this  system  of  light- 
ing is  in  the  installation.  It  costs  about  $200  to  put 
in  an  acetylene  plant.  The  cost  of  maintenance  is 
about  equal  to  that  of  coal  oil  lamps. 

If  the  farmer  can  afford  it,  a  furnace  will  be  found 
very  convenient  to  heat  the  house.  The  cost  of  putting 
in  a  furnace  varies  from  $300  to  $400.    If  the  work  is 


MISCELLANEOUS.  463 

done  by  farm  labor  the  expense  is  much  less.  In  a 
large  house  the  cost  of  maintaining  a  furnace  is  less 
than  for  stoves  or  fireplaces.  A  hot  water  system  may 
be  installed  by  connecting  coils  with  the  furnace  or 
kitchen  stove  so  that  hot  water  can  easily  be  obtained 
and  supplied  to  the  kitchen  and  bathroom. 

There  is  no  reason  why  a  farmer  should  not  supply 
his  home  with  the  leading  farm  papers,  magazines,  a 
good  daily  paper,  rural  books  and  a  few  instructive 
books  for  the  children,  as  nowadays  the  rural  free  de- 
livery reaches  most  farm  homes  every  day. 

The  telephone  is  another  convenience  many  farmers 
can  afford.  It  enables  the  family  to  communicate 
with  the  neighbors  and  keep  in  touch  with  the  outside 
world. 

The  house  should  be  well  screened  to  keep  out  flies 
and  mosquitoes. 

Comforts  for  the  Children. — The  children's  com- 
fort should  be  considered.  Hammocks  and  swings 
placed  in  shady  convenient  places  will  afford  much 
amusement  for  the  children.  A  good  shepherd  or 
collie  dog  and  a  cat  are  excellent  companions  for  the 
younger  folks,  and  they  generally  earn  their  keep.  A 
properly  trained  dog  is  a  valuable  asset  on  every  farm. 
Bird  houses  are  a  means  of  attracting  valuable  birds 
to  the  farm,  and  serve  as  ornaments  and  help  to  keep 
down  injurious  insects. 

The  mother  should  have  a  knowledge  of  food,  and 
the  functions  of  the  nutrients  so  as  to  nourish  properly 
the  growing  children.  Many  children  do  not  get  the 
proper  start  in  life,  because  of  inferior  or  unbalanced 
food,  and  they  are  permanently  injured  for  future 
development. 

The  Dooryard  should  be  simple  and  kept  clean. 
Rubbish  of  all  kinds  should  be  dispensed  with.  A 
plain  lawn  with  shrubbery  in  the  corners,  screens  of 
vines  to  hide  the  unsightly  places,  and  flower  beds  in 
nooks  near  the  house  or  against  the  fence  are  desirable 
in  the  dooryard.     A  grass  lawn  should  predominate 


464  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

and  the  trees,  shrubs,  vines  and  flower  beds  should  be 
used  to  fill  in.  Many  people  make  the  mistake  of 
overcrowding  their  dooryards  with  flowers  and  shrub- 
bery, and  cause  the  place  to  appear  unattractive.  It 
is  easier  to  keep  a  grass  lawn  in  good  condition  than 
an  earth  yard,  and  it  is  indeed  much  more  attractive. 
On  the  porches  or  galleries  of  the  house  some  vines 
may  be  grown  to  furnish  shade,  and  thus  serve  to 
make  a  sitting  room  during  summer  afternoons. 

The  Home  Garden. — There  is  no  excuse  for  any 
farmer  buying  vegetables  and  fruits  that  he  can  raise 
at  home.  A  small  garden  planted  with  vegetables, 
fruits  and  vines  that  will  grow  in  the  locality  should 
be  well  cared  for  to  supply  the  home  table.  Enough 
should  be  raised  so  that  they  may  be  preserved  for 
winter  consumption. 

Organization. — The  farmers,  their  wives  and 
grown-up  children  in  every  community  should  meet 
for  their  individual  and  community  improvement.  In 
other  words,  they  should  form  organizations  which 
should  consider  amusements,  improvements  of  schools, 
churches,  roads,  marketing  of  farm  products,  and  the 
many  other  problems  that  confront  the  farmer  and  his 
family.  These  organizations  may  often  obtain  some 
lecturer  to  discuss  some  particular  phase  of  farming 
they  are  interested  in,  from  the  State  Agricultural 
College. 


Section  LXXIX. — Truck  Gardening. 

'  By  Prof.  G.  L.  Tiebout, 

Department  of  Horticulture,  Louisiana  State  University. 

There  is  no  branch  of  horticulture,  or  even  of  agri- 
culture, that  has  received  more  attention,  especially  in 
the  South,  during  the  last  few  years,  than  truck  gar- 
dening. As  the  great  railway  systems  are  extending 
their  North  and  South  Trunk  Lines,  vast  areas  with 
soils  and  climate  well  adapted  to  this  industry,  are  be- 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


465 


ing  opened  up.  Very  often  where  general  farming 
was  only  possible  before  the  advent  of  good  transpor- 
tation facilities,  truck  gardening  is  now  receiving  at- 
tention. There  was  a  time  when  the  large  cities  of 
the  North,  East  and  West  had  to  do  without  the  fresh, 
tender  vegetables  during  the  cold  winters.  To-day 
the  fast  freight  and  express  trains  bring  vegetables 
from  the  far  South  to  these  cities  in  good  condition. 


ii 

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>\    ,< .             <;; 

V 

"■  ■  '  ■-■;■■■'■..    • 

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HHHHHHI 

v 

A  WELL-CULTIVATED  TRUCK  PATCH. 


Classes  of  Truck  Crops. — Truck  gardening  is  the 
most  intensive  form  of  farming.  The  crops  produced 
are,  as  a  rule,  quite  perishable.  Truck  crops  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes :  the  more  staple  or  less  perish- 
able, such  as  onions,  cabbage  and  Irish  potatoes,  and 
the  perishable  as  lettuce,  tomatoes,  snap  beans,  cu- 
cumbers,  eggplants,   cauliflower,   radishes,   beets,   etc. 

Staple  Crops. — The  staple  truck  crops  do  not  re- 


MISCELLANEOUS.  467 

quire  much  equipment.  They  are  easier  grown, 
shipped  in  open  ventilated  cars,  and  are  not  so  liable 
to  sudden  market  fluctuations. 

Perishable  Crops. — These  generally  demand  expen- 
sive equipment,  such  as  coldframes  and  hotbeds,  and 
special  care  must  be  exercised  until  they  are  disposed 
of.  They  have  to  be  packed  in  small  packages, 
shipped  in  refrigerator  cars,  and  are  more  subject  to 
market  fluctuations. 

Kind  of  Soil. — Vegetables  will  grow  on  almost  any 
type  of  soil,  but  when  one  wishes  to  make  a  business 
of  raising  very  early  vegetables  in  large  quantities  for 
shipment  to  distant  markets,  a  favorable  soil  and  cli- 
mate must  be  obtained.  A  well-drained,  sandy  loam, 
which  warms  up  early  in  the  spring,  is  desirable.  Such 
a  soil  should  be  in  a  good  mechanical  condition  to  per- 
mit of  feeding  the  plants  to  the  best  advantage. 

Fertilizers. — Humus  or  decayed  animal  or  vege- 
table matter,  and  quickly  available  commercial  ferti- 
lizers are  favorable  for  these  crops. 

Climate. — The  climate  determines  the  season  in 
which  the  particular  truck  crops  can  be  grown.  The 
mild  winters  of  southern  Florida  will  permit  the  grow- 
ing of  tender  crops,  such  as  tomatoes,  eggplants,  etc., 
which  could  not  be  planted  in  the  far  North  until  late 
spring. 

Natural  Protection  is  Favorable. — As  the  season 
advances,  each  truck  zone,  so  to  speak,  furnishes  the 
sections  north  of  it,  until  these  in  turn  receive  their 
supply  from  home-grown  products.  Certain  locali- 
ties have  natural  advantages  which  enable  the  truck- 
ers to  market  their  crops  earlier  than  their  competi- 
tors in  the  same  latitude.  Protection  is  offered  by 
large  bodies  of  water,  rivers,  heavy  forests  and 
swamps. 

Rapid  Transportation  Necessary. — Rapid  trans- 
portation must  be  at  hand  before  truck  gardening  can 
possibly  exist.  Fast  freights,  express  trains,  and 
rapid    steamboats    are    instruments    that    determine 


468  FUNDAMENTALS   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

where  truck  shall  be  grown,  the  nature  of  the  crops 
and  the  profitableness  of  the  undertaking. 

Irrigation  is  playing  an  important  part  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  truck  industry.  The  majority  of 
truck  crops  are  not  able  to  withstand  any  prolonged 
drought,  and  when  they  do,  their  quality  is  so  im- 
paired as  to  render  them  practically  worthless.  Ir- 
rigation, therefore,  often  results  in  the  saving  of  the 
crop,  and  in  many  instances  appreciably  increases  the 
profits.  If  the  drought  is  general,  the  supply  is 
greatly  reduced  and  prices  correspondingly  increased. 

Systems  of  Irrigation. — The  two  principal  systems 
of  irrigation  employed  are  the  furrow  and  .overhead. 
In  the  furrow  system  the  water  is  applied  in  the  fur- 
rows between  the  rows  of  vegetables.  In  the  over- 
head system,  the  plants  are  sprinkled  from  a  system  of 
perforated  pipes  which  are  supported  on  posts  high 
enough  to  permit  horse  or  man  to  pass  under  them 
with  ease  when  cultivating.  This  latter  system  ap- 
proaches nature's  method  of  watering  plants  and  is 
becoming  popular  where  very  intensive  culture  is 
practiced. 

Begin  on  a  Small  Scale. — When  the  trucker  has 
chosen  a  favorable  spot  he  must  study  the  culture  of 
the  various  crops  he  wishes  to  raise.  If  he  has  been 
a  general  farmer  he  will  naturally  look  to  the  more 
staple  truck  crops  in  beginning.  For  these  he  will 
have  most  of  the  necessary  equipment,  and  he  should 
begin  on  a  small  scale  until  he  masters  the  details  in 
the  management  of  a  certain  crop  or  crops,  when  he 
will  be  in  a  position  to  enlarge  operations. 

Diversification  should  be  practiced  in  truck  farm- 
ing as  well  as  in  general  farming.  By  raising  several 
crops  which  mature  at  different  seasons,  the  trucker 
will  be  able  to  give  his  hired  hands  continuous  labor. 
He  will  be  in  a  position  to  devote  more  attention  to 
each  crop,  and,  as  a  rule,  under  such  management  all 
of  his  crops  will  not  fail,  or  bring  poor  returns,  no 
matter   how   bad   the   season   may  be.     Suppose   the 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


469 


trucker  raises  only  one  crop,  invests  heavily  and  some 
natural  calamity,  such  as  an  unexpected  freeze  or  hail 
comes  and  destroys  it;  or  still  worse,  after  the  crop 
has  been  raised,  packed  and  shipped  it  arrives  on  a 
glutted  market,  and  does  not  sell  for  freight  charges. 


WAX    BEANS. 


Southern  Conditions. — In  the  far  South  the  truck 
farmer  does  not  need  so  much  equipment  in  the  way  of 
hotbeds,  coldframes  and  greenhouses  as  the  northern 
growers.  Neither  is  it  necessary  to  make  his  opera- 
tions so  intensive.  After  the  truck  crops  are  off  in 
the  early  spring  or  summer,  some  of  the  staple  crops, 
such  as  corn,  cowpeas,  sweet  potatoes,  etc.,  can  be 
grown  as  feed  for  the  live-stock. 

JVhat  Crops  to  Raise. — Years  ago  when  competi- 
tion was  not  great  the  problem  that  confronted  the 


470  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 


A   MODERN   GREENHOUSE. 


grower  was  how  to  raise  a  particular  vegetable.  To- 
day the  question  is,  how  to  grade,  pack,  ship,  and  sell 
the  product.  Of  course  the  grower  who  has  mastered 
the  art  of  raising  vegetables  can  often  rise  above  his 
competitors,  especially  so  with  novelties.  The  cul- 
tural methods  of  the  more  staple  crops  are  so  gener- 
ally understood  and  literature  is  so  abundant,  that  the 
expert  grower  does  not  have  the  opportunity  he  for- 
merly had.  To-day  the  expert  seller  holds  the  im- 
portant position. 

Associations. — It  would  be  hard  for  each  individual 
grower  to  attend  to  both  the  growing  and  the  market- 
ing of  his  crops.  Where  truck  growing  is  most  suc- 
cessful, the  truckers  organize  and  form  associations. 
Each  association  employs  a  competent  sales  manager 
to  properly  attend  to  the  shipping  and  selling  of  the 
members'  products. 

Shipping  and  Selling. — Grades,  on  the  different 
crops,  are  established  and  not  more  than  one  grade  is 
loaded  In  the  same  car.  This  Is  necessary  In  order 
to  demand  a  good  price  for  shipments.  In  season, 
buyers  from  the  large  cities  come  to  the  shipping  points 
and  purchase  the  produce,  the  cars  generally  being 
sold  at  auction  to  the  highest  bidder.  In  order  that 
the  association  manager  may  be  reliably  informed  as 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


471 


to  market  conditions,  the  associations  generally  have 
representatives  located  in  all  the  large  markets,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  telegraph  daily  or  oftener  as  to  the  supply, 
the  prevailing  prices  and  other  conditions  of  impor- 
tance. In  this  way  the  association  manager  is  in  a 
position  to  receive  bids  to  the  best  advantage  of  the 
growers. 

Crops  are  not  Always  Sold  at  Shipping  Point. — An 
association  is  not  always  able  to  sell  its  produce  at  the 


A    SHIPPING    SCENE. 


shipping  point;  especially  is  this  true  when  there  is 
overproduction,  or  the  crops  are  very  perishable. 
Under  these  conditions  it  is  necessary  to  consign  the 
shipments  to  a  reliable  commission  house,  or  sell  the 
output  through  a  representative  of  the  association  at 
the  marketing  point.  Even  if  these  less  desirable 
methods  of  disposition  are  necessary,  the  association 
through  its  sales  manager  will  be  in  a  position  to  dis- 
tribute its  products  intelligently  and  avoid  glutted 
markets. 

Other    Advantages    of    Organization. — There    are 
many  other  advantages  of  truck  organizations,  such 


472  FUNDAMENTALS    OF   AGRICULTURE. 

as  co-operative  buying  of  shipping  packages,  ferti- 
lizers, seeds.  Implements,  etc.;  better  recognition  by 
the  railroads,  express  companies,  and  other  corpora- 
tions with  which  the  trucker  deals;  more  power  In  the 
courts  and  In  legislation  for  the  control  of  rates,  time 
schedules  and  car  service. 

Kind  of  Packages. — Incident  with  the  development 
of  modern  truck  growing  has  arisen  the  demand  for 
vegetables  packed  In  small  packages,  the  size  being 
in  proportion  to  the  bulklness  of  the  crop  or  the  de- 
mand of  an  average  family.  This  Is  the  day  of  small, 
gift  packages,  and  the  trend  of  the  times  Is  certainly 
being  felt  In  the  truck  business.  Each  shipping  section 
usually  has  Its  own  particular  styles  of  packages. 
This  gives  rise  to  an  innumerable  variety.  The  time 
will  come,  however,  when  a  uniform  standard  package 
will  be  demanded  by  the  consuming  public. 

Exercise. — Make  a  list  of  the  truck  crops  that  may  be  grown  in 
your  section.  Classify  them  as  to  perishability.  State  when  the 
truck  crops  are  grown  and  the  length  of  the  growing  season.  Are 
the  soils,  climate  and  transportation  facilities  favorable?  Is  irriga- 
tion practiced?  Are  the  growers  organized;  if  so  what  is  the  mem- 
bership of  the  association? 

REFERENCES  FOR  COLLATERAL  READING. 

Miscellaneous. 
Farm  Management: 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1908 — Types  of  farming  in  the  United  States. 

1908 — Wastes  of  the  farm. 

1908 — Causes   of   Southern  rural   conditions   and  the  small 
farm  as  an  important  remedy. 
Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Circular,  No. : 

159 — The  future  use  of  land  in  the  United  States. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

62 — Marketing  farm  produce. 

126 — Practical  suggestions  for  farm  buildings. 

242 — An  example  of  modern  farming. 

272 — A  successful  hog  and  seed  corn  farm. 

280 — A  profitable  tenant  dairy  farm. 

310 — A  successful  Alabama  diversified  farm. 

312 — A  successful  Southern  hay  farm. 

325 — Small  farms  in  the  corn  belt. 

326 — Building  up  a  run-down  cotton  plantation. 

327 — The  conservation  of  natural  resources. 


MISCELLANEOUS.  473 

237 — Cropping  systems  for  New  England  dairy  farms. 

340 — Declaration  of  governors  for  conservation  of  natural 

resources. 
357 — Methods  of  poultry  management.  1 

362 — Conditions  affecting  the  value  of  market  hay. 
364 — A  profitable  cotton  farm. 
370 — Replanning  a  farm  for  profit. 
Farm  Machinery: 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

277 — The  use  of  alcohol  and  gasoline  in  farm  engines. 
303 — Corn  harvesting  machinery. 
347 — Repair  of  farm  equipment. 

The  Disposal  of  Sewage  on  the  Farm  : 
Farmers'  Bulletin,  No. : 

270 — Modern  conveniences  for  the  farm  home. 
Roads  : 

Yearbooks  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 
1897 — Object  lesson  roads. 
1901 — Road   building   with    convict   labor    in   the    Southern 

States. 
1904 — Practical  road  building  in  Tennessee. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

79 — Testing  of  road  materials. 
95 — Goods  roads  for  farmers. 
136 — Earth  roads. 

321 — The  use  of  split-log  drag  on  earth  roads. 
338 — Macadam  roads. 
Office  of  Public  Roads,  U.   S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Bulletins 
Nos.: 

24 — Proceedings  of  the  North   Carolina  good   roads   con- 
vention. 
29— The  construction  of  macadam  roads. 
Missouri  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Columbia,  Mo.,  Bulletins, 
Nos. : 

I — Vol.  3 — Road  dragging. 
10 — Vol.  I — Road  Improvement. 
The  Country  Home: 

Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture : 

1902 — Plants  as  a  factor  in  home  adornment. 
Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 

185 — Beautifying  the  home  grounds. 
248 — The  lawn. 

270 — Modern  conveniences  for  the  farm  home. 
342 — A  model  kitchen. 
375 — Care  of  food  in  the  home. 
Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Cir- 
cular No. : 
84 — Education  for  country  life. 
Truck  Gardening: 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Nos. : 
35-149-244-365— Potato. 
61-84-233-259 — Asparagus. 
62 — Marketing  farm  produce. 


474  FUNDAMENTALS   OF   AGRICULTURE. 

105-289 — Beans. 

133-169-282 — Celery. 

1 76- 1 78-22 1 — Cranberries. 

181 — Pruning. 

186-220-225-296 — Tomatoes. 

198-210 — Strawberries. 

203 — Canned  fruits,  preserves  and  jellies. 

208 — Varieties  of  fruits  recommended  for  planting. 

210 — Effect  of  shading  vegetables. 

231 — Spraying  for  cucumber  and  melon  diseases. 

232 — Okra;  its  culture  and  uses. 

233-354 — Onion  culture. 

254 — Cucumbers. 

295 — Potatoes  and  other  root  crops. 

324 — Sweet  potatoes. 

359 — Canning  vegetables  at  home. 

Books: 

Farm  Management — Card — Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York 

City. 
The  Farmstead — Roberts — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City. 
How  to  Choose  a  Farm — Hunt — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York 

City. 
The  Farmers'  Business   Hand  Book — Roberts — The  Macmillan 

Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  State  and  The  Farmer — Bailey — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New 

York  City. 
Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors — Davidson  &  Chase — Orange 

Judd  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Chapters    in    Rural    Progress — Butterfield — Univ.    of    Chicago 

Press,  Chicago. 
One  Woman's   Work  for   Farm  Women — Buell — Whitcomb  & 

Barrows,  Boston. 
Principles  of  Vegetable  Gardening — Bailey — The  Macmillan  Co., 

New  York  City. 


APPENDIX. 


SUGGESTIONS     FOR    AN     AGRICULTURAL 
SCHOOL  LIBRARY. 

Table  i. 

Every  school  should  endeavor  to  build  up  a  good 
library  so  that  the  students  may  have  reference  to  the 
literature  on  the  several  agricultural  subjects,  A 
great  deal  of  valuable  literature  may  be  secured,  free 
of  charge,  from  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  State  Experiment  Stations  and  State 
Boards  of  Agriculture. 

A  complete  list  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  should  be  ob- 
tained. These  may  be  had  by  writing  to  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C,  or  through  your 
congressman.  Ask  for  Farmers'  Bulletin,  Circular 
No.  670,  which  gives  a  complete  list  of  the  available 
bulletins,  and  for  Circular  No.  4,  which  contains  an 
index  of  the  subjects.  Have  your  name  entered  on 
the  mailing  list  to  receive  the  future  publications. 

Write  to  the  State  Experiment  Stations  of  your  sec- 
tion for  their  available  bulletins,  and  ask  to  have  your 
name  placed  on  their  mailing  lists. 

For  publications  of  your  State  Board  of  Agriculture 
address  your  communication  to  the  state  capital, 

A  complete  set  of  the  Yearbooks  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  should  be  in  your 
library.  For  these  publications  write  to  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture,  or  apply  for  them  through  your  con- 
gressman, 

475 


476  APPENDIX. 

The  Cornell  University,  and  the  Ohio  State  Univer- 
sity, Nature  Study  Leaflets  are  valuable. 

All  of  the  above  institutions  will  be  glad  to  serve 
you.  When  you  are  teaching  a  subject  which  is  of 
especial  interest  in  your  section  you  should  try  to  ob- 
tain bulletins  on  these  subjects  for  the  pupils'  use. 
Copies  of  Farmers'  Bulletins  and  Experiment  Station 
Bulletins  may  readily  be  obtained  provided  they  are 
not  out  of  print. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  is 
made  up  of  many  bureaus,  all  of  which  publish  inter- 
esting and  valuable  farm  literature.  These  publica- 
tions may  be  had  through  your  congressman  or  from 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.  A 
few  of  these  bureaus  are  : 

Bureau  of  Animal  Industry  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 

Bureau  of  Chemistry  Bureau  of  Statistics 

Bureau  of  Entomology  Bureau  of  Soils 

Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  Weather  Bureau 

Forest  Service  Division  of  Publications 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries 

A  few  of  the  leading  farm  papers  should  be  re- 
ceived regularly. 

The  following  list  is  recommended.  A  few  papers 
should  be  selected  which  are  best  suited  for  the  section. 

For  the  New  England  States  and  the  Middle  East: 

Rural  New  Yorker — New  York  City — Weekly — $i.oo  per  year. 
Country  Gentleman — Albany,  N.  Y. — Weekly — $1.50  per  year. 
American  Agriculturist — New  York  City — Weekly — $1.00  per  year. 
New  England  Homestead — Springfield,  Mass. — Weekly — $1.00  per  yr. 

For  the  South  Atlantic  States : 

Progressive  Farmer — Raleigh,  N.  C. — Weekly — $1.00  per  year. 
Southern  Cultivator — Atlanta,  Ga. — Semi-monthly — $1.00  per  year. 

For  the  Gulf  States : 

Southern  Cultivator — Atlanta,  Ga. — Semi-monthly — $1.00  per  year. 

Progressive  Farmer  and  Southern  Farm  Gazette — Starkville,  Miss. — 
Weekly — $1.00  per  year. 

Rice  Journal  and  Southern  Farmer — Crowley.  La. — Monthly — $1.00 
per  year. 

For  Texas  and  the  Southwest : 
Farm  and  Ranch — Dallas,  Tex. — ^Weekly — $1.00  per  year. 


APPENDIX.  477 

For  Upper  Mississippi  Valley: 

Homestead — Des  Moines,  Iowa — Weekly — $i.oo  per  year. 
Wallace's  Farmer — Des  Moines,  Iowa — Weekly — $i.oo  per  year. 

For  the  Northwest: 

Northwest  Pacific  Farmer — Portland,  Oregon — Weekly — $i.oo  per  yr. 
Field  and  Farm — Denver,  Colo. — Weekly — $2.00  per  year. 

For  Breeders  and  Dairymen  in  any  Section: 

Breeder's  Gazette — Chicago,  111. — Weekly — $1.75  per  year. 

Hoard's  Dairyman — Fort  Atkinson,  Wis. — Weekly — $1.00  per  year. 

For  Poultrymen: 

Reliable  Poultry  Journal — Quincy,  111. — Monthly — $0.50  per  year. 

The  following  list  of  books  should  be  in  every 
school  library.  If  the  funds  will  not  permit  of  the 
purchase  of  all  these  books,  those  books  which  cover 
the  subjects  of  most  importance  in  your  community 
should  be  given  preference : 

Published  by  the  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York  City: 

Bailey — Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture $20.00 

Vol.  I — Farms,  Climates  and  Soils. 

Vol.  2 — Farm  Crops. 

Vol.  3 — Farm  Animals. 

Vol.  4 — The  Farm  and  the  Community. 

Bailey — Plant  Breeding i  .00 

Bailey — The  Principles  of  Vegetable  Gardening 1.25 

Bailey — The  Principles  of  Fruit  Growing 1.50 

Hunt — How  to  Choose  a  Farm 1.75 

Jordan — The  Feeding  of  Animals  (difficult) i  .50 

King— The  Soil  (difficult) . 1.50 

Lipman — Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life 1.50 

Roberts — The  Farmstead 1.50 

Roberts — The  Farmers'  Business  Hand  Book 1.25 

Roberts — The  Horse 1.25 

Snyder — Chemistry  of  Plant  and  Animal  Life 1.25 

Snyder — Human  Foods 1.25 

Snyder — Soils  and  Fertilizers 1.25 

Voorhees — Fertilizers 1.25 

Watson — Farm  Poultry 1.25 

Wing — Milk  and  Its  Products 1.50 

Published  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York  City: 

Card — Farm  Management 2.00 

Comstock — How  to  Keep  Bees i.oo 

Fletcher — Soils 2.00 

Published  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.: 

Conn — Bacteria,  Yeasts  and  Molds  in  the  Home 1.20 

Davenport — The  Principles  of  Breeding  (difficult) 2.50 

Duggar — Fungus  Diseases  of  Plants 2.00 

Plumb — Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals 2.00 


478 


APPENDIX. 


Published  by  Orange  Judd  Co.,  New  York  City.: 

Davidson  &  Chase — Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors 2.00 

Fraser — The  Potato 75 

Hunt — Cereals  in  America •. . . .     1.75 

Hunt — Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  in  America 1.75 

Waugh — The  American  Apple  Orchard i  .00 

Published  by  W.  A.  Henry,  Madison,  Wis. : 

Henry — Feeds  and  Feeding 2.00 

PubUshed  by  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  New  York  City: 

Sargent — Com  Plants 75 

Published  by  Mendota  Pub.  Co.,  Madison,  Wis.: 

Farrington  and  Woll — Testing  Milk  and  Its  Products i.oo 

Published  by  Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York  City: 

Weathers — School,  Cottage  and  Allotment  Gardening i  .00 

Published  by  A.  I.  Root  Pub.  Co.,  Medina,  Ohio: 
A  B  C  and  X  Y  Z  of  Bee  Culture 1.25 


Table  2. 

THE  STATE  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS. 


Alabama — 

College  Station:  Auburn 

Canebrake  Station:   Uniontown 

Tuskegee:  Tuskegee 
Arizona —  Tucson 
Arkansas — Fayetteville 
California — Berkeley 
Colorado — Fort  Collins 
Connecticut — 

State  Station :  New  Haven 

Storrs  Station:  Storrs 
Delaware — Newark 
Florida — Gainesville 
Georgia — Experiment 
Idaho — Moscow 
Illinois —  Urbana 
Indiana — Lafayette 
Iowa — A  mes 
Kansas — Manhattan 
Kentucky — Lexington 
Louisiana — 

State  Station:  Baton  Rouge 

Sugar  Station:  Audubon  Park, 
N.  O. 

North  La.  Station:  Calhoun 

Rice  Station:  Crowley 
Maine — Orono 
Maryland — College  Park 
Massachusetts — A  ntherst 
Michigan — East  Lansing 
Minnesota — St.  Anthony  Park, 

St.  Paul 
Mississippi — Agricultural  College 


Missouri — 

College  Station:  Columbia 
Fruit  Station:  Mountain  Grove 

Montana — Bozeman 

Nebraska — Lincoln 

Nevada — Reno 

New  Hampshire — Durham 

New  Jersey — New  Brunswick 

New  Mexico — Agricultural  College 

New  York — 

State  Station:  Geneva 
Cornell  Station:  Ithaca 

North  Carolina — 

College  Station :  West  Raleigh 
State  Station:  Raleigh 

North  Dakota — Agricultural  Col. 

Ohio —  Wooster 

Oklahoma — Stillwater 

Oregon —  Corvallis 

Pennsylvania — State  College 

Rhode  Island — Kingston 

South  Carolina — Clemson  College 

South  Dakota — Brookings 

Tennessee — Knoxville 

Texas — College  Station 

Utah — Logan 

Vermont — Burlington 

Virginia — Blacksburg 

Washington — Pullman 

West  Virginia — Morgantown 

Wisconsin — Madison 

Wyoming — Laramie 


APPENDIX. 


479 


Table  3. 

STATISTICS   ON   LIVE-STOCK  AND   CROPS* 
I.  Live-stock 


Kind  of  Live-stock 


Number  on 
Farms  in  the 
United  States 
Jan.  I,  1909 


Average  Price 

Per  Head 
Jan.  I,  1909 


Farm  Value 
Jan. I,  1909 


Horses 

Mules 

Milch  Cows . . 
Other  Cattle. 

Sheep 

Swine 


20,640,000 
4,053,000 
21,720,000 
49,379,000 
56,084,000 
54,147,000 


$95-64 
107.84 

32.36 

17.49 

343 

6.55 


51,974,052,000 
437,082,000 
702,945,000 
863,754,000 
192,632,000 
354,794,000 


II.  Crops 


Name  of  Crop 

Acreage 
1908 

Production 
1908 

Farm  Value 
Dec.  I,  1908 

Corn 

Cotton 

Rice 

Tobacco 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

101,788,000 

32,444,000 

655,000 

875425 

47.557.000 

32,344,000 

6,646,000 

1,948,000 

46,486,000 

2,668,651,000  bus. 

13,241,799  bales 

21,889,620  bus. 
718,061,380  lbs. 
644,602,000  bus. 
807,156,000  bus. 
166,756,000  bus. 

31,851,000  bus. 

70,798,000  tons 

$1,616,145,000 

588,814,828 

17,771,281 

74,130,185 

616,826,000 

381,171,000 

92,442,000 

23,455,000 

635,423,000 

Rye 

Hay 

*  1908  Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Table  4. 

AVERAGE  LEGAL  WEIGHTS  PER   BUSHEL  OF  SOME 
FARM   PRODUCTS* 


Name  of 
Material 


Apples 

Apples  (dried) 

Barley 

Beans  

Buckwheat. .  .  . 

Carrots 

Clover  Seed  . . . 
Com  (ear)  . . . . 
Corn  (shelled) 
Cotton  seed  . . . 
Flax  seed 


Weight  in 
Pounds 


48 
24 
48 
60 
52 
50 
60 
70 
56 
32 
56 


Name  of  Material 


Kentucky  blue  grass  (seed) 

Millet 

Oats 

Onions 

Peas 

Potatoes  (Irish) 

Potatoes  (sweet) 

Rye 

Timothy  seed 

Turnips 

Wheat 


Weight  in 
Pounds 


14 
50 
32 
57 
60 
60 
55 
56 
45 
55 
60 


♦  Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


48o 


APPENDIX. 


Table  5. 

FERTILIZER  CONSTITUENTS   IN    1,000   POUNDS  OF 
FEED   STUFFS* 


Name  of  Feed 


Nitrogen 

in 
pounds 


Phosphoric 
Acid  in 
pounds 


Potash 

in 
pounds 


Corn  (grain) 

Corn  and  cob  meal 

Oats  (grain) 

Wheat  (grain) 

Wheat  bran 

Wheat  middlings 

Cotton  seed 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Linseed  meal  (new  process) . . 

Peanut  meal 

Dried  brewers'  grains 

Cowpeas  (seed) 

Rice  bran 

Rice  polish 

Beet  molasses 

Corn  silage 

Corn  stover  (whole  plant  ex 

cept  ears) 

Cotton-seed  hulls 

Timothy  hay 

Red  clover  hay 

Crimson  clover  hay 

Alfalfa  hay 

Cowpea  hay 

Soya  bean  hay 

Mixed  grass  hay 

Kentucky  blue  grass  hay 

Turnip  (flat) 

Carrot 

Beet  (Mangel-wurzel) 


14. 1 
20.6 
23.6 
26.7 
26.3 

31-3 
67.9 
57-8 
75-6 
36.2 
330 

71 
19.7 
14.6 

2.8 

10.4 

6.9 

12.6 

20.7 

20.5 

21 .9 

19-5 

I-7-5 

14. 1 

II. 9 

1.8 

1-5 

1-9 


7.0 

5-7 
8.2 

7-9 
28.9 

9-5 
12.7 
28.8 
18.3 
131 
10.3 

2.9 
26.7 

0.5 
I.I 


9 
5 
3 
8 
o 
I 
2 
o 
2.7 
4.0 

I.O 

0.9 
0.9 


4.0 

4-7 

6.2 

50 

16. 1 

6.3 
II. 7 

8.7 
139 
15.0 

0.9 

2.4 

71 

56.3 

3-7 

14.0 

10.2 

9.0 

22.0 

131 
16.8 

147 
13.2 

15-5 

157 

3-9 

51 

3-8 


*  Henry,  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


APPENDIX. 


481 


Table  6. 

AVERAGE   COMPOSITION   OF  FERTILIZERS 
I.  Nitrogenous  Fertilizers 


Name  of  Fertilizer 


Pounds  Per  Hundred 


Nitrogen 


Total 

Phosphoric 

Potash 

Acid 

3-14 

1-5-3 

1.3-2 

1.2 

I-I-5 

5-16 

Lime 


Nitrate  of  soda 

Ammonium  sulphate 

Dried  blood  (red) 

Tankage 

Cotton-seed  meal 

Cotton  seed 

Dried  fish  scrap 

Linseed  meal 

Calcium  cyanamid   (lime  ni 
trogen)  


15-16 
20 

13-14 
4-5-12 

5-7-5 
3 
6.5-10.5 
5-5 

9.5-18.4 


2.  Phosphoric  Acid  Fertilizers 


Pounds  Per  Hundred 

Name  of  Fertilizer 

Nitrogen 

Total 

Phosphoric 

Acid 

Available 

Phosphoric 

Acid 

Tennessee  phosphate  rock 

Florida  phosphate  rock 

South    Carolina  phosphate  rock 

Ground  raw  bone 

Ground  steamed  bone 

3-4 
2-4 

30-32 
18-40 
26-28 

22 
18-32 
32-36 
15-20 

4-8' 
5-10 

Boneblack 

Basic  slag  (iron  phosphate) .... 

482 


APPENDIX. 
3.  Potash  Fertilizers 


Pounds  Per  Hundred 

Name  of  Fertilizer 

Potash 

Total 

Phosphoric 

Acid 

Lime 

Kainit 

12 
50-52 
49-59 
14-16 

26 

4-7 
1-2 
5-10 

1-5-2 
I-I-5 

Sulphate  of  potash 

Muriate  of  potash 

Sylvinit 

Double  manure  salts 

Wood  ashes  (unleached) 

Wood  ashes  (leached) 

30-33 
27-29 

Tobacco  stems 

-^ 

Table  7. 

AVERAGE  COMPOSITION   OF   FARM   MANURES 


Pounds  Per  Hundred 

Kind  of  Manure 

Water 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Lime 

Cow  manure  (fresh) 

Horse  manure  (fresh) .... 
Sheep  manure  (fresh) .... 

Hog  manure  (fresh) 

Hen  manure  (fresh) 

Mixed  stable  manure 

85-3 
71-3 
64.6 
72.4 
56.0 
75-0 

0.38 
0.58 
0.83 
0.45 
1.63 
0.50 

0.16 
0.28 
0.23 
0.19 

1-54 
0.26 

0.40 

0.53 
0.67 
0.60 
0.85 
0.63 

0.31 
0.21 

0.33 
0.08 
0.24 
0.70 

APPENDIX.  483 

Table  8. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  ONE  TON  OP  FEED  STUFFS  * 

Protein  Carbohydrates      Fat 

lbs.  lbs.  lbs. 

Alfalfa  hay 220  792  24 

Alfalfa — green 78  254  10 

Bermuda  hay 115  760  27 

Bran 244  772  60 

Beet  pulp — wet 12  146 

Corn  chop 158  1.334  86 

Corn  and  cob  meal 98  i  ,260  70 

Corn  stover 36  648  14 

Corn  silage 18  226  14 

Cotton-seed  meal 744  338  168 

Dried  brewers'  grains 314  627  102 

Ground  barley 174  1,312  32 

Green  peas  and  oats 36  142  4 

Gluten  feed 446  962  50 

Hominy  feed 150  1,104  13^ 

Mangels 22  108  2 

Malt  sprouts 372  742  34 

MiddUngs 256  1,060  68 

Oats 180  946  84 

Oat  straw 24  772  16 

Oat  hay 86  928  30 

Oil  meal — op 586  802  140 

Oil  meal — np 564  802  56 

Peavine  straw 86  646  16 

Red  clover — green 58  296  14 

Red  top  hay 96  938  20 

Sugar  beets 22  204  2 

Timothy  hay 56  868  28 

Wheat 204  1 ,384  34 

Wheat  straw 8  726  8 

*  Louisiana  Experiment  Station,  Bui.  115. 


INDEX. 


Aberdeen— Angus  cattle,   339. 

Absorption,    395. 

Acid  phosphate,  65. 

Acidity    of    soils,    9. 

Adaptability    of    feeds,    413. 

Aerating    roots,    33. 

African    geese,    364. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Stations, 
478. 

Agricultural  life,  means  of  promot- 
mp.    Section    i.    Introduction. 

Agricultural  school  library,  475,  476, 
477.    478. 

Air,    dry,    18. 

Air    in    soil,    15. 

Alfalfa,  30,  191 ;  amount  to  sow  per 
acre,    197;    composition    of,   410. 

Algae,    35. 

American  cheese,  379. 

American  saddle  horse,  330. 

American    trotter,    328. 

Amylopsin,    395. 

Ancona   fowls,   363. 

Andalusian    fowls,    363. 

Animal,  artificial  selection  of,  318; 
breeding  and  grading  of,  318;  by- 
products of,  407;  composition  of, 
390;  food  of,  387;  lean  and  fat  car- 
casses of,  390;  natural  selection  of, 
318;    substances,   389. 

Annual  defined,   187. 

Annual    rings,    41. 

Antennae    of  insects,   263. 

Anther,    44. 

Anthracnose    of   bean,   252. 

Apple,  209;  blight  of,  250;  scab  of, 
248;   weight   per   bushel,   479. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  273,  281,  287,  291, 
292,    2p4,    296. 

Asn,  functions  of,  391,  392;  of 
animalSj   389;    of  plants,  387. 

Assimilation,    395. 

Association    for    truckers,    470. 

Atmospheric   nitrogen,   6,   9. 

Auricle,    130. 

Available    phosphoric    acid,    66. 

Awn,    130,    133. 

Aylesbury    ducks,   364. 

Ayrshire   cattle,   344. 

Babcock   milk    tester,   377. 

Bacteria,    10,  30,   34,   382. 

Bacterial    wilt,    254. 

Bantam    chickens,    364. 

Bark,   42. 

Barley,  147;  classification  of,  148; 
description  of,  147;  enemies  of, 
149;     plant    food     removed    by,    3; 


position  of,  149;  seeding  of,  149; 
weight  and  measure  of,  414; 
weight   per    bushel,    479. 

Bean,  30;  pod  spot  of,  252. 

Beard,    definition    of,    133. 

Beef  cattle,   333;   parts   of,   335. 

Bees,  section  on,  301 ;  aid  in  fertili- 
zation, 267;  bees  and  fruits,  301; 
life  of  a  worker,  302;  products  of, 
304;  swarming,  303;  the  colony, 
301. 

Beeswax,    definition    of,    304. 

Beggarweed,    30. 

Belgian    horse,    321. 

Berkshire    hog,    356. 

Bermuda  grass,  40,  192;  amount  to 
sow    per    acre,    :97. 

Birds,  section  on,  304;  beneficial 
species,  305;  food  of,  306;  houses 
for,  316;  keep  down  disease,  314; 
necessity  for,  306;  nesting  places, 
312;  of  field  and  garden,  311;  of 
orchard  and  woodland,  308;  pro- 
tection of,  315;  regulate  plant 
growth,  308;  tree  guardians,  310; 
useful  species,  312;  utility  of  birds 
of  prey,  314;  value  of  garden  birds, 
312. 

Black  Spanish  chickens,  363. 

Blackberry,    217. 

Blackstrap  molasses,  406;  composi- 
tion and  digestibility  of,  410; 
weight    and    measure    of,    414. 

Blade,    39. 

Blight,   35,   249,   250. 

Blue   Swedish   ducks,   364. 

Bobolink,    313. 

Boll  weevil,  271;  section  on,  274;  de- 
scription 01,  275;  effect  01  tem- 
perature on,  279;  economic 
changes,  280;  hibernation,  280;  his- 
tory of,  274;  invasion  of,  275;  life 
history  of,  277;  migration,  279; 
preventing   damage   by,    281. 

Boll    worm,   271. 

Bones,  65,  66;  composition  of  bone 
meal,   407. 

Books,  23,  57,  74,  203,  239,  260,  317, 
386,  433,  474;  list  of  publishers  and 
prices    of,    477,   478. 

Bordeaux    mixture,    how    made,    247. 

Brackett    fungi,    37. 

Brahma   chickens,    362. 

Brewers'  grains,  definition  of,  402; 
composition  and  digestibility  of, 
410;   weight   and   measure   of,   414. 

Brown   rot,   33,  250. 

Brown    Swiss    cattle,    345. 


48s 


486 


INDEX. 


Buckeye    chickens,    360. 

Buckwheat,    weight    per    bushel,    479. 

Bud,   40. 

Budding,  46,   50. 

Bug,   definition    of,    261. 

Bulb,  50. 

Butter,    how    made    and    composition 

of,   378.   379. 
Buttermilk,   380. 
By-products,     alcoholic,    402;     animal 

and   fish,    407;    breakfast   food,    403; 

glucose    and     starch,    404;     milling, 

404;   sugar,  406;  vegetable  oil,  401. 

Cabbage,  club  root  of,  253;  cultiva- 
tion and  storing  of,  175;  resetting, 
17s;  seeding,  175;  soil  and  ferti- 
lizer  for,    175. 

Call    ducks,    364. 

Calyx,   44. 

Cambian,    41. 

Canada   pea,   196. 

Canadian  geese,  364. 

Capillary    moisture,    18. 

Carbohydrates,  absorption  of,  395; 
amounts  for  feeding,  420;  defini- 
tion   of,    388;    function    of,    392. 

Carbon    dioxide,    4,    12,    25,   2T. 

Carpet    grass,    187,    190. 

Carrot,  174;  composition  and  di- 
gestibility of,  410;  weight  per 
bushel,    479. 

Cassava,   39. 

Cattle,  section  on,  333;  breeds  of  beef 
cattle,  337;  breeds  of  dairy  cattle, 
341 ;  dairy  cattle,  339 ;  dual  purpose 
cattle,  344;  milk  breeds,  375;  score 
card  for  beef  cattle,  334;  score 
card    for   dairy   cattle,    342. 

Cattle  tick,  section  on,  283;  descrip- 
tion of,  283;  eradication  of,  284; 
remedies,  284;  seed  ticks,  284; 
Texas  fever,  283. 

Cayuga  ducks,  364. 

Cells,  24. 

Cheat,    144. 

Cheese,  kinds  of  and  composition  of, 

^379.   380. 

Cherry,   212. 

Cheshire    hog,    358. 

Chester  white   hog,   356. 

Cheviot    sheep,    351. 

Chickadees,   3oi8. 

Chickens,  classes  of,  360,  362,  363, 
364;  how  to  prevent  lice  and  mite 
of,  373;   types  of,  359. 

Chinch    bug,    136,    145,    149,   271. 

Chinese    geese,    364. 

Chlorophyll,   199,  388. 

Chyle     395. 

Chylification,   395. 

Chyme,    394. 

Chymification,    394. 

Cion,   50. 

Circulation,    395. 

Citron,   55. 

Clay,   13. 

Cleveland   Bay   horse,   328. 

Close    fertilization,    45. 

Clover,  amount  of  water  required, 
4;  elements  removed  by  hay  of, 
3;    alsike,    187;    bur,    188;    crimson. 


188,  195;  amount  per  acre,  197; 
composition  of,  410;  red,  187,  190; 
amount  per  acre,  197;  composition 
of,  410;  white,  187;  weight  per 
bushel,    479. 

Clydesdale    horse,    322. 

Coach    horse,    326. 

Cochin    chicken,   362. 

Cock,    definition    of,   360. 

Cockerel,  definition  of,  362. 

Cockle,    144. 

Cocoon,    definition   of,   266. 

Codling    moth,    291. 

Collateral  reading,  22,  57,  74,  200, 
201,   202,   203,   337,   238,  239,   2C0,   316, 

^317,   384,   385.  386,   433,   472,   473.   474- 

Colorado  potato   beetle,  294. 

Combine,   144. 

Combustion,   25. 

Commercial  feeds,  definition  of,  398; 
sources  of,  400;  value  of  by-prod- 
ucts,   400;    where    derived,    399. 

Commercial     fertilizers,     62. 

Composition    of   feeds,   388,   410. 

Compost,    61. 

Condensed    milk,   380. 

Condimental    feeds,    432. 

Contact  method  for  killing  insects, 
273. 

Corn,  section  on,  83;  amount  of 
water  required,  4;  brace  roots,  38; 
bran,  404;  breeding,  102;  classifi- 
cation, 87;  composition  of,  410; 
cultivation,  96;  description  of  plant 
of,  91;  digestibility  of,  410;  ele- 
ments removed  by,  3;  germ  meal, 
404;  harvesting,  98;  judging,  99; 
inethods  of  culture,  93;  prepara- 
tion of  seed  bed,  95;  planter  for, 
444;  planting,  96;  present  distribu- 
tion, 83;  production  in  United 
States,  86;  rotation,  103;  seed  corn 
testing,  loi ;  selection  of  seed,  99; 
silage  composition  and  digestibility 
of,  410;  smut,  256,  257;  stover,  com- 
position and  digestibility  of,  410; 
varieties,  98;  weight  and  measure 
of,  414;  weight  per  bushel,  479; 
yield  of  leading  corn  producing 
states,  85. 

Corn  and  cob  meal,  composition  and 
digestibility  of,  410;  weight  and 
measure   of,  414. 

Corn  and  oat  feed,  how  made,  403; 
weight  and  measure  of,  414. 

Corolla,   44. 

Corrosive  sublimate  solution,  247, 
249,    253. 

Cortex,    40. 

Cotswold   sheep,  352. 

Cotton,  section  on,  104;  black  rust 
of,  259;  boll  weevil  injury,  277; 
botanical  characters  and  habit  of 
growth,  106;  burn  stalks  to  pre- 
vent boll  weevil  damage,  281 ; 
credit  system  of  raising,  117;  cul- 
tivation, 114;  culture  of,  11 1;  cul- 
tural method,  282;  fertilizers  for, 
113;  gin  invented,  105;  ginning, 
lis;  harvesting,  1:5;  history  of, 
104;  importance  of,  104;  length  01 
fiber     improved     by    selection,    52; 


INDEX. 


487 


long  staple,  no;  nature  of  fiber, 
109;  planters  for,  443;  planting,  112; 
region  of  cultivation,  105;  seed  of, 
116;  selecting  and  breeding,  107; 
shedding  of  bolls  and  squares,  259; 
short  staple,  ui;  thinning,  113; 
wilt   of,  33,   257;   worm   of,   286. 

Cotton  seed,  116;  composition  of, 
401,  410;  digestibility  of,  410;  ele- 
ments removed  by,  113;  products 
from,    116;    weight   per   bushel,    479. 

Cotton-seed  hulls,  401 ;  analysis  of, 
401 ;  composition  and  digestibility 
of,  410;  weight  and  measure  of,  414. 

Cotton-seed  meal,  63,  401 ;  analysis 
of,  401,  402;  composition  and  di- 
gestibility of,  410;  weight  and 
measure   of,    414. 

Cotton-seed   meats,   401. 

Cotton-seed   oil,   388,   401. 

Cotton  worm  or  cotton  caterpillar, 
section  on,  285. 

Country    home,    section    on,    460. 

Cowpea,  6,  30,  193;  amount  to  sow 
per  acre,  197;  seed  and  hay,  com- 
position   and    digestibility    of,    410. 

Crab  grass,  196;  composition  and  di- 
gestibility  of,   410. 

Cradle,   446. 

Cream,    definition    of,    377. 

Crevecoeur    chickens,   363. 

Crops,  rotation  of,  75,  77;  water  re- 
quirements of,  17;  statistics  on,  479. 

Cross-breed,   319. 

Cross-pollination,   53. 

Culm,    129. 

Cultivation,    20. 

Cultivators,    21,    441. 

Currant,  218. 

Cutting,   so. 

Cutworm,  293. 

Dairy  cattle,  339. 

Dairying,   section  on,  374,  384. 

Deciduous,  39,  229. 

Defecation,    396. 

Deglutition,   393. 

Devil's   horse,   268. 

Devon    cattle,    337. 

Dewberry,  217. 

Digestibility   of   feeds,   410;    necessity 

of,  409. 
Digestion,    physiology   of,   393. 
Distillers'    grains,    definition    of,    403. 
Diversification,    75,    281. 
Dodder,    33,    199. 
Dominique    chickens,    360. 
Dorking   chickens,    360,    363. 
Dorset   sheep,  350. 
Drainage,    18. 
Dried   beet    pulp,   406. 
Dried   blood,   407. 
Drills.    443- 
Dry    farming,    22. 

Dry    ground    fish,    analysis    of,    407. 
Dry   matter,   388,    389. 
Ducks,   breeds   of,   364. 
Duroc-Jersey   hog,   354. 
Dutch    belted    cattle,   344. 

Earth    roads,    section    on,    455. 
East  India  ducks,  364. 


Eggs,    how   to   preserve,    374. 
Egyptian   geese,   364. 
Electrical    injuries   to   trees,    224. 
Elements    removed    by    crops,    3. 
Embden  geese,  364. 
Embryo,   48. 
Endosperm,    48. 
Erosion,    loss    by,   6. 
Essential    elements,    2,    62. 
Essex   swine,   358. 
Evaporation,    18. 
Evergreen,    39. 

Farm,    adaption    of,    435;     choice    of, 

434;   records  and   accounts  for,  437; 

should     run    at    full    capacity,    436; 

team   labor   for,   437. 
Farm    animals,    composition    of,    390. 
Farm    crops,    chapter   on,    75. 
Farm    management,    section    on,   434. 
Farm    manures,    58;    composition    of, 

482. 
Farm    machinery,    section     on,     438; 

care   of,   451;    for   cotton   and   corn. 

Farm  papers,  list  of,  476,  477. 

Farm  products,  legal  weights  per 
bushel,  479. 

Farming,    types    of,    435. 

Fats,  function  of,  392;  of  animals, 
389;    of    milk,    377;    of   plants,    388. 

FaveroUe   chickens,  364. 

Feeds  and  feeding,  chapter  on,  387; 
adulteration  of  feeds,  431;  by-prod- 
ucts of  feeds,  400;  classification  of 
feeds,  388;  composition  of  feeds, 
387,  388,  410;  digestibility  of  feeds, 
410;  digestible  nutrients  in  one 
ton  of  feeds,  483;  feeds  for  cattle, 
426;  feeds  for  fattening  cattle,  427; 
feeds  for  fattening  sheep  and 
swine,  428;  feeds  for  horses,  425; 
feeds  for  young  animals  and  poul- 
try, 429;  fertilizer  constituents  in 
feeds,  480;  food  of  animal  and 
plant,  387;  grains  and  seeds,  398; 
how  to  buy  feeds,  431;  market 
prices  of  feeds,  413;  natural  and 
commercial  stock  feeds,  396;  nutri- 
tive elements,  390;  raise  feed  at 
home,  432;  Table  of  composition 
and  digestibility  of  feeds,  410; 
weights  and  measures  of  feeds,  414. 

Feed    laws,    importance    of,    430. 

Feed   meal,   404. 

Feed    selection,    413. 

Feeding   standards,   411;    use  of,  412. 

Ferments,    395. 

Ferns,  37. 

Fertilization  of  plants,  45. 

Fertilizers,  amounts  per  acre,  72; 
application  of,  72;  composition  of. 
481,  482;  constituents  in  feea 
stuffs,  480;  cost  of,  71;  effect  of, 
73;  fillers,  71;  for  the  crop  and 
soil,  73;  for  truck  crops,  72,  467; 
guarantee,  67;  home  mixing,  69; 
kinds  for  the  crop,  72;  mixing  of, 
69;  nitrogenous,  63;  phosphoric 
acid,  64;  potash,  66;  valuation  of, 
67. 

Fiber,  definition   of,  388. 


488 


INDEX. 


Filament,   43. 

Fish   scraps,  64. 

Flax,  elements  removed  by,  3;  seed, 
composition  of,  402;  feed,  402; 
weight  per  bushel,  479. 

Flour,  406. 

Flower  garden,  234;  flowers  to  plant, 
227;    location   of,   234. 

Flowering    plants,    kinds    of,    48,    230. 

Flowers,  44;   parts  of,  42. 

Fodder,    186. 

Food    economics,    396. 

Forage  crops,  section  on,  185; 
amounts  of  seed  to  sow  per  acre, 
197;  annual  grasses  and  legumes, 
187,  188;  characteristics  of,  187; 
classes  of,  186;  hay,  186;  husband- 
ing of,  397;  meadows,  186;  meadow 
mixtures,  188;  origin  of  legumes 
and  grasses,  188;  pasturage,  185; 
pasture  mixtures,  188;  perennial 
grasses  and  legumes,  187;  soiling 
crops,  185;  some  important  forage 
plants,    section   on,    190. 

Formalin,  247,   253,  256. 

Forestry,  section  on,  219;  destruc- 
tive section,  the  South,  220; 
government  control  and  study  of, 
220;  how  to  manage,  220;  how 
trees  are  injured,  221 ;  pine  bar- 
rens,  220. 

French   coach   horse,  327. 

Frizzle   chickens,   36k. 

Fruits,  47,  209;  garden  for,  232;  sec 
Pomology. 

Fungi,  35;  definition  of,  240;  food 
of,  241;  reproduction  of,  242;  struc- 
ture of,  240. 

Fungicide,  definition  of,  246;  exam- 
ples   of,    247;    preparation    of,    247. 

Fungus  diseases,  33,  248,  252,  255; 
of  rice,   125;   means  of  control,  243. 

Galloway    cattle,    339. 

Game   chickens,   364. 

Garden,  section,  232;  home,  236; 
how  to  plan,  233;  flower  garden, 
232;  fruit  garden,  232;  meaning  of, 
232;    vegetable   garden,   233. 

Gas,  injury   to   trees   by,  222,  223,  224. 

Geese,    breeds   of,   364. 

German    coach    horse,    327. 

Germination,   48,   49. 

Glucose  and   starch   by-products,  404. 

Glume,   130. 

Gluten,    141. 

Gluten   feed  and   meal,  404. 

Goose,   weights  of,   364. 

Gooseberry,   218. 

Grades     and      grading    of    live-stock. 

Grafting,   50. 

Grain  plants  for  feeding,  398;  rusts 
of,   136,   14s,  257;  smuts  of,  255,  256. 

Grape,   213;    black    rot  of,   251. 

Grass,  annual  and  perennial,  187;  for 
feeding,  397;  origin  of,  188;  soils 
for,   20;    water  requirements   of,   20. 

Grasshopper,    262,    264,    271. 

Gravel,    13. 

Gravitational  water,   18. 

Green  manuring,  8. 


Ground   water   table,   20. 
Guernsey  cattle,  343. 
Gymnosperms,    47. 
Gypsum,    61. 

Hackney    horse,    327. 

Half-blood,   definition   of,   319. 

Half-sugar    mangel    wurzels,    167. 

Hamburg   chickens,   360,   363. 

Hampshire    sheep,    350. 

Hampshire    swine,    358. 

Hard    pan,    17. 

Harlequin   bug,   262,   296. 

Harrows,    440. 

Harvesting   machinery,   445. 

Hay,  composition  and  digestibility 
of,  410;  definition  of,  186;  red 
clover  and  meadow,  elements  re- 
moved  by,    3. 

Haying   machinery,  448. 

Hayloaders,   450. 

Headers,    4^8. 

Hen,    definition    of,    362. 

Heredity,    law   of,   318. 

Hereford   cattle,   337. 

High-grade,    definition    of,   319. 

Hog,  see  Swine. 

Holstein-Fresian   cattle,    344. 

Home,  building  of  house,  460;  com- 
forts for  children,  463 ;  conven- 
iences, 462;  dooryard,  463;  garden, 
464;  organization,  464;  ventilation, 
462;    water    supply,   462. 

Home    garden,    236. 

Hominy    feed,    404. 

Honey,  45;   definition   of,  304. 

Horses,  section  on,  320;  breeds  of 
coach  horses,  327;  breeds  of  draft 
horses,  321 ;  location  and  names  of 
different  parts  of,  324;  proper 
shape  of  fore  and  hind  legs,  324; 
roadster  or  light  harness  type,  328; 
score  card  for  draft  horses,  325; 
score    card    for    light    horses,    331. 

Host,    definition   of,    240. 

Houdan    chickens,    363. 

House-fly,    262,    297. 

Humus,    8;    sources    of,    8. 

Hybrid,    47,    332. 

Hybrid    turnips,     173. 

Hybridization,    46;    methods    of,    55. 

Hydrogen,   2. 

Hygroscopic  moisture,    18. 

Imported    cabbage   worm,   294. 

Incubation,  364. 

Indian    runner    ducks,    364. 

Inoculation    of    soil,    30. 

Insalivation,   393. 

Insects,  chapter  on,  261;  biting  in- 
sects, 272;  cannibals,  267;  cross- 
fertilization  hy,  267;  enemies  of 
farmer,  271;  friends  of  farmer,  267; 
how  insects  breathe,  264;  how  in- 
sects feel,  263;  how  insects  grow. 
264:  how  insects  move,  262;  how 
insects  see,  262;  how  to  fight  bit- 
ing insects,  272;  how  to  fight  suck- 
ing insects,  273;  insects  of  orchard 
and  garden,  288;  parasites,  269; 
sucking  insects,  273;  two  great 
groups    of    insect    pests,    272;    what 


INDEX. 


489 


an  insect  is,  261. 

Irish   potato,   see   Potato. 

Iron  sulphate  as  a  weed  destroyer, 
199. 

Irrigation  of  truck  crops,  468;  sys- 
tems   of,    468. 

Italian  rye  grass.  196;  amount  to 
sow   per   acre,    197. 

Tack,    332. 

Japan    clover,    see    Lespedeza. 

Java    chickens,    360. 

Jersey    cattle,    342. 
ohnson    grass,    193,    198;    amount    to 
sow  per  acre,    197. 

Kaffir  corn,  composition  and  diges- 
tibility  of,  410. 

Kainit,   66;    composition   of,   482. 

Kelps,    35. 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  192;  amount  to 
sow  per  acre,  107;  composition  and 
digestibility  of,  410;  weight  per 
bushel,   479. 

Kentucky  saddle  horse,  332. 

Kerosene    emulsion,    273,    290,    297. 

Kohlrabi,   174. 

Lacteals,   395. 

Lady-bird,    267. 

La    Fleche    chickens,    364. 

Langshan   chickens,    362. 

Large    Yorkshire    swine,     357. 

Larva,    definition    of,   266. 

Lawn,   234;    amount  of  seed   for,   23s; 

grass    tor,    235;    privacy   of,   236. 
Layering,    definition    of,    50. 
Leaching,   loss   by,   6. 
Leaf,   parts   of,  39. 
Leaflets,   39. 

Leaves,  39;  function  of,  39. 
Leghorn    chickens,    363. 
Legumes,   annual   and   perennial,    187, 

I'SS;    maintaining    fertility    with,    9; 

origin    of,     188;    plants,    10,    30,    79; 

see  Forage  Crops. 
Leicester    sheep,    352. 
Lespedeza,    30,    195;    amount    to    sow 

per  acre,   197. 
Lightning,  effect  on  trees,  255. 
Ligule,    130. 
Lime,    28. 

Lime    sulphur   wash,    247,    290. 
Liming,  9. 

Lincoln    sheep,    348,    352. 
Linseed     meal     and     flax    seed,   402; 

composition     and     digestibility     of, 

402,   410. 
Live-stock,    chapter    on,    318;    statis- 
tics   on,    479. 
Loaders,    450. 

Magnesium,    2. 

Malt    sprouts,    definition    of,    403. 

Mammoth   bronze   turkeys,   364. 

Mangels,  climate  and  soil  for,  167; 
composition  and  digestibility  of, 
410;  cultivation  of,  168;  elements 
removed  by,  3;  fertilizers  for,  168; 
harvesting,  169;  seeding  and  plants 


ing,     168;    varieties    of,     167;    yields 
of,    169. 

Manures  and  fertilizing  materials 
chapter  on,  58;  barnyard,  58,  482: 
conditions  affecting  value  of,  58 
effects  of,  59;  farm,  lasting  quali 
ties  of,  60;  loss  by  leaching,  6 
natural,    58;    stable,    58,    482. 

Marl,    60. 

Mastication,   393. 

Maturity,    48. 

Meadow,    definition    of,    186. 

Meadow  fescue,  187;  amount  to  sow 
per   acre,    197. 

Meadow    mixtures,    188. 

Meat    and    bone    meal,    407. 

Meat   scraps,   analysis   of,   407. 

Mediterranean   chickens,  360. 

Merino    sheep,    347. 

Milk,  care  of,  381;  composition  of, 
376;  definition  of,  376;  necessity  of 
caring  for,  383;  sterilization  and 
pasteurization,    382. 

Milk   sugar,  380. 

Millet,  196;  amount  to  sow  per  acre, 
197;    weight    per    bushel,    479. 

Milling    by-products,    404. 

Minorca    chickens,    363. 

Molasses,  156;  cane  and  beet,  406; 
composition  and  digestibility  of 
cane  and  beet,  410;  weight  and 
measure  of,  414. 

Molt,    definition    of,    264. 

Mosquitoes,    298. 

Mosses,    37. 

Moth,    definition    of,    266. 

Mowers,   448. 

Mule,   defined,   332. 

Mule    footed    swine,    358. 

Muriate  of  potash,  66;  composition 
of,    482. 

Muscovy  ducks,  364. 

Mushroom,    36. 

Mycelium,   240. 

Narragansett    turkeys,    364. 

Nectar,    45. 

Nematodes,    30. 

Nitrate    of    soda,    63. 

Nitrogen,    2,    30;    function    of,    73. 

Nitrogen  free  extract,  definition  of, 
388. 

Nitrogen  gathering  plants,  see  Le- 
gumes. 

Nitrogenous   fertilizers,   63,   481. 

Nitrogenous    ration,  418. 

Nuthatches,   308. 

Nutritive    elements,    390;    function    of, 

390- 
Nutritive    ration,     definition    of,    409; 

terms    of,   418. 
Nymph,   definition    of,   264. 

Oat    feeds,    how  made,   403. 

Oats,  amount  of  hull,  131;  classifi- 
cation of,  131;  composition  and  di- 
gestibility of,  410;  elements  re- 
moved by,  3;  enemies  of,  136;  im- 
provement of,  133;  position  of  as 
a  crop,  131;  seeding  of,  134;  smut 
of.  33.  255;  the  head,  130;  the 
leaves,      129;      the    plant,     127;    the 


49° 


INDEX. 


stalk,  129;  the  roots,  128;  weight 
and  measure  of,  414;  weight  per 
bushel,    479;    yield    of,    135. 

Onion,    weight    per    bushel,    479. 

Orange,    53,    212;    white    fly    of,    292. 

Orchard,  planting  and  care  of,  sec- 
tion on,  204;  age  to  plant  trees, 
205;  cover  crops,  207;  cultivation, 
206;  distance  between  trees,  205; 
how  to  plant  a  tree,  205;  insects 
that  injure,  288;  pruning,  206;  se- 
lection   of    site,    204;    spraying,    207. 

Orchard  grass,  187;  amount  to  sow 
per   acre,    197. 

Organic   matter,    9. 

Orpington    chickens,    360,    363. 

Ovary,    43. 

Ovule,    44. 

Oxford    sheep,    347. 

Oxidation,    25. 

Oxygen,    i,   2. 

Pacer,   330. 

Packages  for  vegetables,  473. 

Paddy,    124. 

Palatability  of  feeds,  413. 

Panicle,    130. 

Parasites,    33,    240. 

Paris  green,  272,  281,  287,  292,  293, 
294. 

Pasteurization  of  milk,  382. 

Pasture    defined,    185;    mixtures,    188. 

Pea,  30. 

Peach,  210;  leaf  curl,  250;  varieties 
of,  211.  . 

Peach    borer,    290. 

Peach    yellows,   211. 

Peanut  meal,  composition  and  di- 
gestibility   of,   410. 

Peanuts,  182;  as  a  pasture  crop,  184, 
cultivating  and  harvesting  of,  183; 
how  to  plant,  182;  preparation  of 
land    for,    182;    rotation    crop,    182. 

Pear,   209;   varieties  of,   210. 

Pear    blight,    249. 

Peas,  elements  removed  by,  3; 
weight  per  bushel,  479. 

Pedicel,    130. 

Pekin    ducks,    364. 

Pepsin,   395. 

Peptone,   395. 

Percheron  horse,  320,  321. 

Perennial,   definition   of,    187. 

Petal,    44. 

Petiole,    39. 

Phosphate  rock,  12,  65;  composition 
of,   481. 

Phosphoric  acid,  28;  forms  of,  66; 
function    of,    73. 

Phosphorus,  2;  amount  in  soils,  11; 
amount  to  apply,  12;  supplying 
the   soil,    II. 

Pistil,  42. 

Pith,  41. 

Plant  diseases,  chapter  on,  240; 
causes  of,  240;  field  crop  diseases, 
255;  fruit  crop  diseases,  248;  gar- 
den   crop    diseases,    252. 

Plant  life,  chapter  on,  24. 

Planters,    443. 

Plants,  breeding  of,  51;  changes  in 
appearance  of,  228;  composition  of. 


?87;  energy  requirements  of,  25; 
ood  manufacturers,  25;  food  of, 
387;  growth  of,  48;  length  of  life 
of,  49;  light  requirements  of,  27; 
list  of  woody  plants,  229;  number 
of.  34;  power  requirements,  27;  pro- 
pagation of,  50,  56;  reproduction 
of,  49;  stages  of  development  of, 
48;  substances  of,  387. 

Plows,  439,  440. 

Plum,    211. 

Plum   curculio,   290. 

Plummule,    49. 

Plymouth   Rock  chickens,   360. 

Pod,   47. 

Poland    China    swine,    353. 

Polish    chickens,    363. 

Polled   Durham  cattle,  339. 

Pollen,   44,   45,  48. 

Pollination,   45,   46. 

Pomology,  section  on,  209;  defini- 
tion of,  209;  citrus  fruits,  212; 
pome  fruits,  209;  small  fruits,  215; 
stone  fruits,  210;  tree  fruits,  209; 
vine    fruits,    213. 

Potash,  28;  amount  in  soil,  12; 
amount    to   apply,    12;    function    of. 

Potassium,    2. 

Potatoes,  amount  of  water  required 
by,  4;  beetle,  294;  cultivation  of, 
179;  elements  removed  by,  3;  fer- 
tilizers, 179;  harvesting  and  stor- 
ing, 180;  importance,  176;  planter 
for,  443;  planting,  179;  scab  of, 
253;  soil  for,  177;  weight  per 
bushel,   479. 

Poultry,  section  on,  359;  classes, 
breeds,  and  varieties,  359;  feeds 
for,   429;    importance  of,   359. 

Poultry  houses  and  care  of  poultry, 
section  on,  365;  care  of  setting 
hen,  373;  dusting  boxes,  373;  ex- 
ercise, 373;  feed  trough,  370;  floors, 
366;  grit,  373;  marking  poultry, 
373;  methods  of  housing,  365; 
nests,  370;  requirements  of  houses, 
366;  roosts,  370;  ventilation,  367; 
water  supply,  371 ;  where  to  build 
and  why,  366;  windows,  366;  yards, 
371- 

Praymg   mantis,    268. 

Prehension,   393. 

Prepotent,    definition    of,   319. 

Propagation,    50. 

Protein,  387,  389,  392,  395;  amounts 
for  feeding,  420;  function  of,  391, 
392. 

Protoplasm,    24;    activities   of,   24. 

Puddling    of    soil,    16. 

Puff  ball,  36. 

Pullet,    definition    of,    362. 

Pupa,   definition    of,   266. 

Pure-breed,    319. 

Quince,  210. 

Rachis,    140. 
Radicle,   49. 
Rakes,  449. 
Rape,    176. 
Raspberry,   217. 


INDEX. 


491 


Rations,  sections  on,  415;  balancing, 
416;  for  dairy  cows,  417,  426;  for 
fattening  animals,  427;  for  work- 
ing animals,  425;  for  young  ani- 
mals, 429;  how  to  improve,  420; 
how  to  reduce  cost  of,  422;  nar- 
row, wide  and  medium,  418,  419, 
420;    trial,    415. 

Recurring    stem,    50. 

Red    cap    chickens,    363. 

Red    polled    cattle,    345. 

Red  top,  186,  187;  amount  to  sow 
per    acre,    197. 

Rescue  grass,  196;  amount  to  sow 
per    acre,    197. 

Reversion   of  animals,   318. 

Revolving  fund   of  soil   fertility,  5. 

Rhode    Island    red    chickens,    360. 

Rice,  section  on,  118;  canals,  121; 
diseases  of,  125;  fertilizers  for,  124; 
flooding,  120;  gravity  and  syphon- 
ing of  water  for,  121 ;  harvesting, 
122;  importance  of,  118;  insect  ene- 
mies, 125;  kinds  of  water  used, 
121;  planting,  120;  rotation  of 
crops,  124;  threshing  and  yields, 
123;  types  of,  118;  weeds,  124; 
wells,    122. 

Rice  products;  bran,  grits,  hulls, 
meal,  polish,  406;  composition  and 
digestibility  of,  410;  weight  and 
measure    of,    414. 

Road  drag,  459. 

Roads,  section  on,  455;  construction 
of,    456;    maintenance    of,    457. 

Rockweed,    35. 

Rogueing,   52. 

Root  crops,  section  on,  164;  for  feed- 
ing. 398;  roots  versus  cereals,  167; 
weight  per  bushel,  479;  yields  of, 
166. 

Root   hair,   31. 

Root   knot,    30. 

Root    stalk,    49. 

Roots,  composition  of,  388,  410;  coro- 
nal   and    seminal,    128;    function    of, 

Rotation,   section   on,   75. 

Rouen   duck,   364. 

Rough   rice,   124. 

Roughage,    definition    of,    413. 

Runners,    40. 

Rutabagas,    173. 

Rye,  145;  enemies  of,  146;  position 
of,  146;  the  culm,  145;  the  head, 
146;  the  roots,  145;  varieties,  146; 
weight  and  measure  of,  414;  weight 
per   bushel,   479;    yield   01,    146. 

Salad    vegetables,    233. 

Salts   of   the   soil,   2,   17. 

San   Jose   scale,   288. 

Sand,    13. 

Sandy  loam,   20. 

Saprophytes,  33,  34,  36. 

Scion,    see   ClON. 

Score    card    for    cattle,    334,    342;    for 

horses,   325,    331. 
Scrub,  319. 
Sea    Island     cotton,     106;    length    of 

fiber,    no. 
Seed,  37;   parts  of,  48. 


Seed    leaves,   49. 

Seed  plants,  38;  kinds  of,  47;  parts 
of,   38. 

Seed    selection,    methods    of,    51. 

Seeders,   442. 

Seeding  machinery,  442. 

Seeds   for  feeding,   398. 

Self-binder,   446. 

Self-pollination,    46. 

Sepal,    44. 

Separator,   377,   378. 

Seven-eights    pure,    definition   of,    319. 

Sewage  disposal,  section  on,  452; 
cesspool,  452;  disposal  require- 
ments, 452;  filter  bed  system,  453; 
septic    tank,    453. 

Sheep,  types  and  breeds  of,  section 
on,  345;  average  weights  of  fleeces, 
352;  English  breeds,  348;  history 
of,  34S;  long  wools,  352;  value  of, 
352- 

Shetland   pony,   332. 

Shire   horse,   322,   323. 

Shorthorn    cattle,    337. 

Shropshire    sheep,    346. 

Shrubs,   section   on,  226;  see  Trees. 

Sickle,   446. 

Side   delivery    rake,    449. 

Silage,  397;  composition  and  diges- 
tibility   of,    410. 

Silkies  chickens,  364. 

Silo,   397. 

Silt,    13. 

Silt  loam,  20. 

Skim  milk,  377,  407;  composition  and 
digestibility    of,    410. 

Small    Yorkshire    swine,   358. 

Smut,  33,  14s,  255;  how  to  avoid, 
256;  how  to  control,  256. 

Soil,  chapter  on,  i;  air  in,  15; 
causes  of  shrinkage  of,  i;;  chemi- 
cal reaction  of,  8;  classes  of  soil 
particles,  13;  cracks,  15;  limitinp: 
factors  of  soil  fertility,  7;  mechani- 
cal composition,  14;  mulch,  20; 
puddling,  16;  relation  of  soil  to 
plant  growth,  i;  silt,  13;  silt  loam, 
20;  soil  fertility,  4;  soil  physics, 
12;  texture,  14;  water  holding  ca- 
pacity,   19. 

Soiling   crops,    185. 

Sorghum,    187;    cuite   of,   406. 

Southdown    sheep,    350. 

Soy  bean,  30,  194;  composition  and 
digestibility   of  hay   of,   410. 

Spores,    37;    kinds    of,    242. 

Spraying,    207,   246. 

Stackers,   451. 

Stamen,   42;   parts   of,   44. 

Steapsin,    395. 

Stems,  kinds  of,  40;  parts  of,  42; 
structure  of,  40. 

Sterilization    of   milk,   382. 

Stigma,   44. 

Stipule,  39. 

Stock,    50. 

Stolon,   40. 

Storing    roots,    39. 

Straw,    elements    removed    by,    3. 

Strawberry,   47,    215. 

Style,    44. 

Sucker,  49. 


492 


INDEX. 


Suffolk    sheep,    347. 

Sugar,    156. 

Sugar  beet,  169;  harvesting,  173;  ir- 
rigation of,  172;  time  to  plant,  172; 
varieties,    172. 

Sugar  cane,  section  on,  150;  bud  or 
eye  and  seed  of,  151 ;  cultivation 
of,  154;  drainage,  154;  fertilizers 
for,  156;  harvesting  and  planting, 
155;  leaves,  151;  manufacture  of 
sugar,  156;  other  cane  countries, 
157;  products  from,  156;  roots,  150; 
soil  analysis,  154;  soil  for,  153; 
stalk,  150;  territory  in  United 
States,    153;   tissues,    152;   yield,    157. 

Sulphate  of  ammonia,  63;  composi- 
tion   of,    481. 

Sulphate  of  potash,  66;  composition 
of,   482. 

Sulphur  mixtures  used  as  fungicides, 
247. 

Sultan  chickens,  364. 

Sussex    cattle,    337. 

Sweeps,   451. 

Sweet  potatoes,  39,  180;  harvesting, 
181;  how  to  plant,  181;  preparation 
of  land,  180;  storage  house,  181; 
storing  and  preservation,  181 ;  va- 
rieties,  182;  weight  per  bushel,   479. 

Swine,  types  and  breeds  of,  section 
on,  352;  bacon  and  lard  types,  332, 

„3S3- 

Syrup,   157, 

Tall  meadow  oat  grass,  186,  187; 
amount  to  sow  per  acre,  197. 

Tamworth    swine,    358. 

Tankage,    63,   407,   481. 

Teosinte,  185,  187;  amount  to  sow 
per  acre,  197. 

Texas   cattle   fever,    283. 

Thin   rind    swine,  358. 

Thoroughbred  or  running  horse,  328. 

Three-quarters    pure    defined,    319. 

Thrushes,    312. 

Tillage   machinery,   438. 

Tilth,  16. 

Timothy,  187,  190;  amount  to  sow 
per  acre,  197;  composition  and  di- 
gestibility, 410;   weight  per  bushel, 

^479. 

Toadstool,    36,    240. 

Tobacco,  section  on,  158;  curing,  162; 
harvesting,  161;  importance  of,  159; 
planting  and  growing,  161;  plants 
from  diseased  and  resistant  strains, 
244;  seed  selection,  effect  of,  53, 
54;  sorting  and  grading,  163;  types, 
160. 

Tobacco   water,  273,  297. 

Toulouse   geese,  364. 

Trees,  injury  of  gas  and  electricity 
to,  section  on,  222;  detection  of 
leakage,  224;  effect  of  lightning, 
225;  electrical  injuries,  224;  gas 
leakage,  222;  injury  by  attaching 
wires,  224;  symptoms  of  gas  pois- 
oning,  222. 

Trees  and  shrubs,  ornamental,  sec- 
tion on,  226;  adaptability,  226; 
changes  in  appearance,  228;  individ- 
uality,    227;    list   of,   229;    selection 


and  site  to  provide  shade,  235; 
shrubbery  border,   236. 

Truck  crops,  advantages  of  organi- 
zation, 471;  associations,  470; 
classes  of,  465;  climate,  467;  crops 
to  raise,  469;  diversification,  468; 
fertilizers,  467;  irrigation,  468; 
kind  of  soil,  467;  kinds  of  pack- 
ages, 472;  rapid  transportation,  467; 
shipping  and  selling,  470;  systems 
of    irrigation,    468. 

Truck   gardening,   section   on,   464. 

Trypsin,   395. 

Tuber,   40,    50. 

Tubercles,   10,  30. 

Turkeys,    breeds    of,   364. 

Turnip,  173;  composition  and  diges- 
tibility of,  410;  weight  per  bushel, 
479- 

Underground    stems,    49. 
United    States    Department    of    Agri- 
culture,   bureaus   of,   476. 

Variation   of  animals,   318. 

Vegetable    garden,   233. 

Velvet   bean,  30,   195;   amount   to   sow 

per   acre,    197. 
Vetches,     193;     amount    to    sow    per 

acre,    197. 
Victoria   swine,   358. 

Water,  absorption  of,  i ;  kinds  of, 
17;  uses  of  to  plant  and  amounts 
required,  4,  30;  in  animals,  389^ 
390;    in    feed    stuffs,   388. 

\\  ater-Iogged,    18,    33. 

Watermelon,  cultivation  of,  184; 
how  to  grow  large  melons,  184; 
preparation  of  land,  184;  wilt  of, 
254- 

Weeds,  section  on,  197;  chemicals  as 
weed  destroyers,  199;  cultivation 
keeps  down  weeds,  199;  eradica- 
tion, 199;  loss  from,  198;  preven- 
tive measures,   199. 

Weight   and   measure   of  feeds,   414. 

Whale  oil  soap,  290,  297. 

Wheat,     classification     of,     142;     com- 

gosition  of,  141;  elements  removed 
y,  3;  enemies  of,  144;  harvesting, 
144;  position  of,  141;  scab,  145; 
seeding  of,  143;  smut,  33,  256;  the 
grain,  141;  the  head,  139;  the 
leaves,  139;  the  plant,  136;  the 
roots,  138;  the  stalk,  138;  weight 
per   bushel,   479;    yield   of,    144. 

Wheat  products;  bran  and  mid- 
dlings, 404;  composition  and  di- 
gestibility of,  410;  weight  and 
measure   of,   414. 

Whey,   380. 

White    fly,   292. 

Whorl,    128. 

Wild  white  cattle,   13,  33. 

Wood  ashes,  61. 

Woodpecker,    308. 

Woody   plants,    list   of,   229. 

Wren,  313. 

Wyandotte   chickens,   360. 

Yorkshire   swine,  357,   338. 


THE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


DECS  01950 
AUG    3  19Bt 

REC'D  MLD 
JUL  2  2  1951 


Form  L-» 
25m-10, '14(2101) 


AT 
LOS  ANGCLBB 


3493 

K15f     Halli^ran  - 

FunciajTiftnt.al 


agriculture. 


aiB  of 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A    001  107  506    6 


^^0^01950 


aiir.    3  196^1 


3493 
H15f 


itjuiiiuiiiiiii 


mm 


w 


